IMPLEMENTATION MODEL OF VAN METER VAN HORN

SYSTEMIC MODEL OF PUBLIC POLICY IMPLEMENTATION VAN METER VAN HORN / THE POLICY

 Implementation Process

Model approach to the implementation of policies formulated by Van Meter and Van Horn called A Model of the Policy Implementation (1975). This implementation process is an abstraction or performance of a policy that basically articulates deliberately done to achieve high performance implementation of policies that took place in the correlations among variables. This model assumes that the implementation of the policy runs linearly from political decisions, and implementer of public policy performance. This model explains that policy performance is influenced by several interrelated variables, these variables are:

1. Standards and targets of policies / measures and policy objectives
2. Resources
3. Characteristics of the implementing organizations
4. The attitude of the implementers
5. Communication between relevant organizations and implementation activities
6. The social environment, economic and political

In detail, the variables of public policy implementation model of Van Meter and Van Horn explained as follows:

1. Standards and targets of policies / measures and policy objectives
Performance of policy implementation can be measured the success rate of measures and policy objectives that are realistic with the existing socio-cultural level policy implementers. When the size and and policy targets are too ideal (utopian), it will be difficult to be realized (Agustino, 2006). Van Meter and Van Horn (in Sulaiman, 1998) proposed to measure the performance of policy implementation must assert specific standards and targets to be achieved by implementing policies, performance appraisal policy is basically a top-level achievement standards and goals.

An understanding of the general purpose of a standard and is an important policy objective. Successful policy implementation, could be a failure (frustated) when the executors (Officials), not fully aware of the standards and policy objectives.Standards and policy objectives have a close relationship with the disposition of the implementers (implementors). The direction of the disposition of the implementers (implementors) to standards and policy objectives is also a "crucial". Implementors might be failing in carrying out the policy, because they refused or did not understand what the objectives of a policy (Van Mater and Van Horn, 1974).


2. Resources
The success of policy implementation depends on the ability to utilize available resources. Humans are the most important resource in determining the success of policy implementation. Each stage requires the implementation of quality human resources appropriate to the work implied by the policies established by apolitical. In addition to human resources, financial resources and time become an important calculation in the successful implementation of the policy. As stated by Derthicks (in Van Mater and Van Horn, 1974) that: "New Town That study suggest the limited supply of federal incentives was a major contributor to the failure of the program."
Van Mater and Van Horn (in Widodo 1974) asserted that:
"The resources policy (policy resources) are not as important as communication.Resource policies must also be available in order to expedite the implementation of a policy administration. These resources consist of funds or other incentives that can facilitate the implementation (implementation) of a policy. Lack of or limited funds or other incentives in policy implementation, is a major contribution to the failure of policy implementation. "

3. Characteristics of the implementing organizations
Focus on executing agent include formal organizations and informal organizations will be involved in policy implementation. This is important because the performance of policy implementation will be strongly influenced by the characteristics of appropriate and compatible with the executing agencies. This relates to the policy context that will be implemented in a number of policies required implementing strict policies and discipline. In other contexts required the executing agent of a democratic and persuasive. Selaian it, scope or area is an important consideration in determining the implementing agency policies.

According to Edward III, 2 (pieces) the main characteristics of bureaucratic structure is the standard work procedures (SOP = Standard Operating Procedures) and fragmentation.


1. Standard Operating Procedures (SOP). SOP was developed as an internal response to the limited time and resources from the executive and the desire for uniformity in the workings of complex organizations and to spread. SOPs that are routinely designed for typical situations in the past may mengambat a change in policy because it does not suit the situation or new programs. SOP is very likely impede the implementation of new policies that require new ways of working or new types of personnel to implement the policy. The greater the policy requires changes in routine ways of an organization, the greater the probability that hinder the implementation of SOP (Edward III, 1980).

2. Fragmentation. Fragmentation comes mainly from pressures outside the bureaucracy units, such as legislative committees, interest groups, executive officials, the State constitution and the nature of policies that affect the organization of public bureaucracy. Fragmentation is the spread of responsibility for an area of policy among several organizational units. "Fragmentation is the dispersion of responsibility for a policy area installments Among organizational units." (Edward III, 1980). More and more actors and agencies involved in a particular policy and the increasingly intertwined their decisions, the less likely the success of implementation.Edward said that in general, the more coordination is needed to implement a policy, the less chance to succeed (Edward III, 1980).


4. Communication between relevant organizations and implementation activities
For public policy can be implemented effectively, according to Van Horn and Van Mater (in Widodo 1974) what is the objective standard should be understood by the individual (implementors). Responsible for the achievement of standards and policy objectives, because the standards and objectives must be communicated to the implementers. Communication within the framework of information delivery to the implementers of what became the standard policy and objectives must be consistent and uniform (consistency and uniformity) of various sources of information.

If there is no clarity and consistency and uniformity of standards and policy objectives, then that becomes the standard and difficult policy objectives to be achieved. With clarity, the policy implementers to know what is expected of him and know what to do. In a public organization, the local government for example, communication is often a difficult and complex process. The process of transferring the news down in the organization or from one organization to another organization, and to other communicators, often experience interference (distortion), whether intentional or not. If different sources of communication make interpretations that are not the same (inconsistent) against a standard and goal, or sources of information together provide a full interpretation with conflict (conflicting), then at some time implementing the policy will find an event that is more difficult to implement a policyintensive.

Thus, the prospects for effective policy implementation, is determined by the communication to the executive policy accurately and consistently (accuracy and consistency) (Van Mater and Varn Horn, in Widodo 1974). In addition, coordination is a powerful mechanism in the implementation of the policy. The better the coordination of communication among the parties involved in policy implementation, then the error will be smaller, and vice versa.

5. Disposition or attitude of the implementers
According to the opinion of Van Metter and Van Horn in Augustine (2006): "attitude of acceptance or rejection of the implementing agency policies greatly affect the success or failure of public policy implementation. It is very likely to occur because of the policies implemented is not the product formulation of the local people who know well the problems and issues that they feel. But public policy is usually a very top-down decision-makers may not know can not even touch the needs, desires or problems that must be resolved ".

Their attitude was influenced by pendangannya against a policy and how to see the impact of the policy was against the interests of his organization and his personal interests. Van Mater and Van Horn (1974) explain the disposition of that policy implementation begins filtering (befiltered) in advance through the perceptions of the implementers (implementors) in the limit where the policy was implemented. There are three kinds of response elements that can affect the ability and willingness to implement a policy, among others, consist of first, knowledge (cognition), and to deepen understanding (comprehension and understanding) with the policies, second, whether the response they receive, neutral or reject ( acceptance, neutrality, and rejection), and third, the intensity of the policy.

An understanding of the general purpose of a standard and is an important policy objective. Because, after all that successful policy implementation, could be a failure (frustated) when the executors (Officials), not fully aware of the standards and policy objectives. The direction of the disposition of the implementers (implementors) to standards and policy objectives. The direction of the disposition of the implementers (implementors) to standards and policy objectives is also a "crucial". Implementors might be failing in carrying out the policy, because they reject what the objectives of a policy (Van Mater and Van Horn, 1974).

Conversely, acceptance of the spread and depth of standards and policy objectives of those responsible for implementing the policy, is a great potential to the successful implementation of the policy (Kaufman in Van Mater and Van Horn, 1974). Ultimately, the intensity of the disposition of the implementers (implementors) can affect the executive (performance) policies. Lack of or limited intensity of this disposition, will be able to cause the failure of policy implementation.

6. The social environment, economic and political
The last thing to consider in order to assess the performance of policy implementation is the extent to which the external environment have promoted the success of public policy. The social environment, economy and politics are not conducive to the source of the problem of failure of policy implementation performance. Therefore, the efforts of policy implementation requires a conducive external environment conditions.


The differences in the implementation process will be influenced by the nature of the policies to be implemented. Furthermore, Van Meter and Van Horn offers an approach that tries to link the issue with the implementation of policies and a conceptual model that links policies with policy performance. They assert that the changes, control and compliance action is an important concept in the implementation procedures. By utilizing these concepts, the problems that need to be studied in this connection is


a. Obstacles to what happens in introducing change in organizations
b. How keep the level of effectiveness of control mechanisms at every level of structure, this problem concerns the power of the lowest in the organization concerned.
c. How important is a sense of attachment to each person in the organization (compliance issues).

From this view, the Van Horn and Van Meter made by policy typology:

a. The amount of each change that will occur
b. Range or scope of the agreement on objectives among the parties involved in the implementation process.


The reason put forward this case is that the implementation process will be influenced by the dimensions of such a policy. Another thing that connects them that dikemukan policies and performance are separated by a number of independent variables related. The independent variables are:

Size and policy objectives

b. The sources of policy
c. Communication between organizations
d. The attitude of the implementers
e. Economic environment, social, political.

Public Private Partnership

Introduction:

Public-private partnership is a crucial issue in the development process of a country. It is an emerging and potential issue in the developing countries like Bangladesh. Partnership is a dynamic issue and multi-factors are involved in the process. It is also called sharing management in development. Different culturing, values, politics and financial issues are included in the process.
Conceptual issues:
Public-Private partnership is a dynamic process in administration and now a days it is it is working as a bridge to make socio-economic development in the country. The concept of public-private partnership is a new concept in Bangladesh and it is much familiar in developed countries. Basically the concept comes from developed country. It was introduced in the United States in 1995 and the UK government introduced the concept in 1990 styled private finance initiatives.
It is a technique of shared culture in the process of management and capital. Public-private partnerships are about shared agendas and combined resources risks, rewards and linkage that can magnify scale, (UN foundation undated: 03).
According to UN Foundation, true public-private partnerships:-
 Are voluntary and build on the respective strengths of each partner.
 Optimize the allocation of resources.
 Achieve mutually beneficial results over a sustained period.
 Involve written agreement that specifies the purpose and duration of partnership, governances as well as exit arrangements.

Why partnership:
Public organizations are set up of provide public services through using public resources and private agencies are established to provide an attractive return on company resources by providing needed services to client and by making strategic investment decisions. Resources are basically limited in public agencies in compared with private agencies and objectively their moods of action are different. To minimize cost effectiveness and delivery of services partnerships are to be successive process in different development sectors. Now a days developed and developing countries emphasis on the process of partnership in education, health, transport and environment are used frequently and successfully.  
Types of partnership:
Generally the public-private partnerships are to be two categories on the process of privatization process. It depends on objectives, nature and functions of the organizations. These are-
1. Restructuring of government organization is the process of privatization policy. Some public organizations are traditionally making losses in the commercial point of view ands their deliveries of services are poor due to inefficient management. Government is making contractual agreement of these organizations with private agencies to make them profitable and efficient. The Biman Bangladesh Limited, Chittagong Sea Port and some public banks are newly example of public-private partnership.
2. The second type of public-private partnership is based on origin of organization and aim of organization. The primary goal of this partnership is to make development on the basis of self perspective. Basically this type of partnership is project based and different foreign partners are involved in this process. The process of partnership is also contractual agreement and it depends on duration period. Some non governments and business and business organizations are working to make this partnership effective. NGO’s and donor agencies are working in Bangladesh as a partner to development in education, health and so on.

Benefits of Public-private partnership:
Public-private partnerships provide benefits by allocating the responsibilities to the party either public or private that is the best positioned to control the activity that will produce the desired result.
1. Expedited completion compares to conventional projects delivery methods.
2. Cost saving.
3. Improved quality and system performance from the use of innovative materials and management techniques.
4. Substitution of private resources and personal for constrained public resources.
5. Access to new sources of private capital.


Objectives of the study:
Public-private partnership is strategic tool in implementing economic policy of government. It plays important role in socio-economic development of the country. The government has taken different steps in various sectors to implement public-private partnership. The specific objectives of the study are-
1. To know about the conceptual issues of public-private partnerships and how these issues are working in Bangladesh.
2. The study ahs been discusses the role of actors in the implementation of public-private partnerships.
3. The affecting factors are evaluated in the study through analyzing the data.
4. To know the effectiveness of public-private partnership in Bangladesh and its constrains in the administrative process.

Conceptual framework:
The implementation of public-private partnership depends on the role of actors and some influential factors in management process. These two major issues are directly or indirectly connected to implementing public-private partnership. A framework is shown in the following diagram-


                                       Actors in partnership

 Public-private partnership in Bangladesh:- Role of actors and factors and factors in implementation:

1. Government: Governments are the principle actor of public-private partnership in a country and they are dominated actor in the process. The initiative of partnership is taken by government in order to necessity of the country. The people representative, bureaucracy and local authority/government are actors of government and they are playing important role in partnership process.
2. Private sector: Another important actor of partnership in involvement of private sectors in the management process. The public-private partnerships are to be meaningful when the specific private sectors make participation with public agencies in the contractual agreement. The private partnerships are business organizations, donor agencies and national or international NGO’s.
3. Civil society: Civil society is safeguard to a country and its role is important to build up the developing society. Public-private partnership is a policy matter and the involvement of civil society to this issue is also important. The role of civil society to public-private partnership is indirect. Civil society is called interest free group of the country and they are playing neutral role in different sectors of the country.



 Influencing factors of implementation:
Factors are influential issues in implementing public-private partnership process. The factors may be socio-cultural, political, economic and administrative phenomena. The above factors directly or indirectly impacts on implementation of public-private partnership in Bangladesh. The factors are illustrated in the following way-
1. Political will: In the process of partnership making and implementing the factors of politics play dominated role in Bangladesh. Politics is the pre-condition to implement public-private partnership and it is influenced by political culture of the country. Political will is important to ensure partnership process.
2. Shared governance: The public-private partnership is shared value in the process of management. The governing management is based on partnership and human resources are come from both sides. The values, norms and ideas are shares by partnership management, each partners share with other in democratic way.
3. Capital/Economic management: Financial resource is a critical part in implementation of public-private partnership in a country. The responsibility of capital and investment is supported by each partner and risk is also shared equally. The share of capital is written in the agreement during the formation of public-private partnership.
4. Efficiency and Effectiveness: The public-private partnership is to be stronger when the system is efficient and effective. The efficiency means that the employees of both organizations are skilled and they can work in the challenging environment. And the term effectiveness means to work actively and properly. Both are related to each other.
5. Social responsibility: There is a social aspect of public-private partnership with the other objectives of the process. The partnership must be socially recognized and people are to be benefited from the system. Social acceptance is a fundamental issue is public-private partnership.
6. Trust building: Trust is important to form partnership as well as implementation. There are two or more parties in the process and the system will be developed by making trust each-other. It is a valuable source to implement the process.
7. Organization culture: Public-private partnership involves so many organization and groups and the pattern of behaviour is different from organization to organization. The organizational culture depends on the type of organizations an its work environment. Organizational culture is the social glue that binds members of the organization together.
8. Policy guidelines: The policy direction is a vital issues to implement the process. The partnership is to be effective when the policy of the process has been done accurately. The policy of a partnership program is being made on the basis of agreement of actors and the participating organizations. And the implementation of public-private partnership depends on the effective management and its strategies.
9. Training: Training enhances attitude, skill and capacity of employees in the organization. The public-private partnership needs to be developed by conducting different training schemes. Training is an essential part in implementing partnership process. It is a process to develop his/her skill in which employees can face the challenging situation.
10. Institutional capacity: Capacity building is particularly needed in the preparation of PPP projects that will attract bidders and assure a truly competitive outcome for the bidding process. The degree of institutional capacity depends on implementation of PPP and it is the vital factor in this process. Institutionalization means how it is organized in terms of formation, rules and regulation and it is recognized to society. The integration, trust building and co-operation of public and private sectors are highly needed to be institutionalized.
11. Supervision and management: The managerial supervision is a key factor to implement PPP. The effectiveness of partnership depends on proper supervision and management. There is a guideline to supervise the partnership process and each partner is responsive to ensure effective supervision.
12. Technical support: The implementation of PPP involves technical support both organizations and it is used as a sources of the process. The infrastructural development of partnership management needs technical support such as human, resources, materials and other equipment. It is used as a way to tackle the challenge of infrastructure development.

Conclusion:
PPP is a very dynamic and innovative process in developing as well as developed countries in the world. Now a days the issue is used in different sectors to make socio-economic development of Bangladesh. Bangladesh is a developing country and the process of PPP is dynamic issue to make stronger zone. In this regard, the role of actors and factors in partnership management is ingredient.  

Public Policy

Introduction:
The government of the most developing countries is going through experiments to improve on their strategies for national development. To ensure the improvement of the relevant policies is taken as an important mechanism for attaining this goal. The field of public policy has assumed considerable importance in response to the ever-increasing complexities of technology, social organization, industrialization and urbanization.
Meaning of public policy:
Public policy is the reflection of government intensions. It is not only concerned with the description and explanations of the causes and consequences of government activity but also developing scientific knowledge about forces shaping public policy and future perspectives.
There are two parts of public policy-
1. Public: Public is defined as people in general a group of people who share a particular interest or who have some thing common.
We can define public in the following manners-
 A group of people.
 Have common interest and objectives.
 Refers to an unstructured social structure.
 May work as a pressure group.

2. Policy:  Policy is seen as a plan of action, statement of ideals etc. Proposed or adopted by a government, political party, business etc.
In brief, policy is something that,
 Refers to a course of action or intended course of action.
 Adopted after a review of possible alternatives.
 Proposed or adopted by a government political party, business etc.
 Regarded as ways of doing things as well as the content of what is being done.
 Concerned not only with what is but also deals with what should be.

Public policy: Public policy is that, which deals with some topic or matter of public concern.
According to Anderson,
 “A purposive course of action followed by an actor or a set of actors in dealing with a problem or matter of concern.”
According to Thomas Dye,
 “Public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do.”
So we can say that, public policy consists of what government does and prefers to do.
Importance of public policy:
1. As inheritors of an enduring democracy, also the sole superpower, we have both the opportunity and the responsibility to participate in civic affairs. We need know-how: the analytical, ethical, and practical skills necessary to effectively engage in public affairs. Regard this responsibility as a life-long duty.
2. The sheer extent of the intervention of government in society, the economy, and world affairs makes the study of public policy essential for a conscientious citizen. Similarly, the amount of spending by government at all levels makes this an important subject. As taxpayers, we have a stake in effective public policy and the overall scope of the government in our lives. We consume a vast and varied bundle of public services. A detailed, current discussion of the dimensions, growth, and composition of government spending will be provided in chapter five, which deals with the budget as part of the policy cycle.
3. Understanding policy analysis permits us to actualize solutions to practical problems which are brought to the agenda of government. These may be our own problems, those of our community, our profession, or problems to which we feel a special commitment. Knowing how public policy works can improve our ability to deal with these issues.
4. Public policy analysis can become a professional role for students trained in political science, economics, law, environmental studies, business, and other disciplines. These fields constantly interface with government and have a direct stake in the quality and character of public policy. To the extent that analysts can understand how policy is made, what impacts are derived, and how policy can improve, more effective public policy might be formulated.
5. To sustain improvements in their social system and to increase the capacity of their political system with a view to achieving the major objective of national development.
6. To collection of data for these purposes may include changes in population growth rates, education, public health and so on.
Nature and Scope of Public Policy
Nature of public policy:
A policy may be general or specific, broad or narrow, simple or complex, public or private, written or unwritten, explicit or implicit, discretionary or detailed and qualitative or quantitative. Here we emphasis on “public policy” which is what a government chooses as guidance for action. From the view point of public policy activities of government can be put into three categories-
Firstly, activities which are attached to specific policies.
Secondly, activities which are general in nature.
Thirdly, activities which are based on vague and inconsistent policies.
In practice, a government rarely has a set of guiding principles for all its activities. Important public policies are often made more explicit, particularly where the issue of law, a regulation, or a plan and like is involved.
A public policy may cover a major portion of its activities which are consistent with the development policy. Socio-economic development equality, or liberty or self reliance or similar broad principles of guidance for action may be adopted as developmental policy or national goal.
A public policy may be narrow, covering a specific activity such as family planning. A public policy may also be applied to all people in a country or it may be limited to a section of its people.
Besides each level government- central state, local- may have its specific or general policies. Then they are “mega-policies” general guidelines to be followed by all specific policies are termed as a “mega-policy”
Public policies in modern political systems are purposive or goal oriented statements. Again a public policy may be either positive or negative in form. In its positive form, it may involve some form of government action to deal with a particular problem. On the other hand, in its negative form, it involves a decision by public servants not to take action on some matter o which a government order is sought.
So we can say, public policy is involved-
 Legally authorized person, for example- parliamentarian, public officials etc.
 The three parts of government like executive, judiciary and legislature branches.
 Cradle to graveyard.

Scope of the Public policy:
A significance part of the study of public policy consists of the development of scenarios and extrapolations of contemporary trends. The scope and sheer size of the public sector has grown enormously in all the developing countries in response to the increasing complexity of technology, social organization, industrialization and urbanization. At present the function of practically all government, specially of the developing countries, have significantly increased. They are now concerned with the more complex functions of nation-building and socio-economic progress. Today the government is not merely the keeper of peace, the arbiter of disputes and the provider of common goods and day to day services. For better or worse, government has, directly or indirectly, become the principal innovator, the major determiner of social and economic programs and the main financer as well as the main guarantor of large- scale enterprises.
Modern urban man is born in a publicly financed hospital, receives his education in a publicly supported school and university, spends a good part of his time travelling on publicly built transportation facilities, communicates through the post office or the quasi-public telephone system, drinks his public drinking water, disposes of his garbage through the public removal system, reads his library books, picnics in his public parks, is protected by public police, fire, and health system, eventually, he dies, again in a hospital, and may even be buried in a public cemetery

Public Policy

Introduction:
The government of the most developing countries is going through experiments to improve on their strategies for national development. To ensure the improvement of the relevant policies is taken as an important mechanism for attaining this goal. The field of public policy has assumed considerable importance in response to the ever-increasing complexities of technology, social organization, industrialization and urbanization.
Meaning of public policy:
Public policy is the reflection of government intensions. It is not only concerned with the description and explanations of the causes and consequences of government activity but also developing scientific knowledge about forces shaping public policy and future perspectives.
There are two parts of public policy-
1. Public: Public is defined as people in general a group of people who share a particular interest or who have some thing common.
We can define public in the following manners-
 A group of people.
 Have common interest and objectives.
 Refers to an unstructured social structure.
 May work as a pressure group.

2. Policy:  Policy is seen as a plan of action, statement of ideals etc. Proposed or adopted by a government, political party, business etc.
In brief, policy is something that,
 Refers to a course of action or intended course of action.
 Adopted after a review of possible alternatives.
 Proposed or adopted by a government political party, business etc.
 Regarded as ways of doing things as well as the content of what is being done.
 Concerned not only with what is but also deals with what should be.

Public policy: Public policy is that, which deals with some topic or matter of public concern.
According to Anderson,
 “A purposive course of action followed by an actor or a set of actors in dealing with a problem or matter of concern.”
According to Thomas Dye,
 “Public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do.”
So we can say that, public policy consists of what government does and prefers to do.
Importance of public policy:
1. As inheritors of an enduring democracy, also the sole superpower, we have both the opportunity and the responsibility to participate in civic affairs. We need know-how: the analytical, ethical, and practical skills necessary to effectively engage in public affairs. Regard this responsibility as a life-long duty.
2. The sheer extent of the intervention of government in society, the economy, and world affairs makes the study of public policy essential for a conscientious citizen. Similarly, the amount of spending by government at all levels makes this an important subject. As taxpayers, we have a stake in effective public policy and the overall scope of the government in our lives. We consume a vast and varied bundle of public services. A detailed, current discussion of the dimensions, growth, and composition of government spending will be provided in chapter five, which deals with the budget as part of the policy cycle.
3. Understanding policy analysis permits us to actualize solutions to practical problems which are brought to the agenda of government. These may be our own problems, those of our community, our profession, or problems to which we feel a special commitment. Knowing how public policy works can improve our ability to deal with these issues.
4. Public policy analysis can become a professional role for students trained in political science, economics, law, environmental studies, business, and other disciplines. These fields constantly interface with government and have a direct stake in the quality and character of public policy. To the extent that analysts can understand how policy is made, what impacts are derived, and how policy can improve, more effective public policy might be formulated.
5. To sustain improvements in their social system and to increase the capacity of their political system with a view to achieving the major objective of national development.
6. To collection of data for these purposes may include changes in population growth rates, education, public health and so on.
Nature and Scope of Public Policy
Nature of public policy:
A policy may be general or specific, broad or narrow, simple or complex, public or private, written or unwritten, explicit or implicit, discretionary or detailed and qualitative or quantitative. Here we emphasis on “public policy” which is what a government chooses as guidance for action. From the view point of public policy activities of government can be put into three categories-
Firstly, activities which are attached to specific policies.
Secondly, activities which are general in nature.
Thirdly, activities which are based on vague and inconsistent policies.
In practice, a government rarely has a set of guiding principles for all its activities. Important public policies are often made more explicit, particularly where the issue of law, a regulation, or a plan and like is involved.
A public policy may cover a major portion of its activities which are consistent with the development policy. Socio-economic development equality, or liberty or self reliance or similar broad principles of guidance for action may be adopted as developmental policy or national goal.
A public policy may be narrow, covering a specific activity such as family planning. A public policy may also be applied to all people in a country or it may be limited to a section of its people.
Besides each level government- central state, local- may have its specific or general policies. Then they are “mega-policies” general guidelines to be followed by all specific policies are termed as a “mega-policy”
Public policies in modern political systems are purposive or goal oriented statements. Again a public policy may be either positive or negative in form. In its positive form, it may involve some form of government action to deal with a particular problem. On the other hand, in its negative form, it involves a decision by public servants not to take action on some matter o which a government order is sought.
So we can say, public policy is involved-
 Legally authorized person, for example- parliamentarian, public officials etc.
 The three parts of government like executive, judiciary and legislature branches.
 Cradle to graveyard.

Scope of the Public policy:
A significance part of the study of public policy consists of the development of scenarios and extrapolations of contemporary trends. The scope and sheer size of the public sector has grown enormously in all the developing countries in response to the increasing complexity of technology, social organization, industrialization and urbanization. At present the function of practically all government, specially of the developing countries, have significantly increased. They are now concerned with the more complex functions of nation-building and socio-economic progress. Today the government is not merely the keeper of peace, the arbiter of disputes and the provider of common goods and day to day services. For better or worse, government has, directly or indirectly, become the principal innovator, the major determiner of social and economic programs and the main financer as well as the main guarantor of large- scale enterprises.
Modern urban man is born in a publicly financed hospital, receives his education in a publicly supported school and university, spends a good part of his time travelling on publicly built transportation facilities, communicates through the post office or the quasi-public telephone system, drinks his public drinking water, disposes of his garbage through the public removal system, reads his library books, picnics in his public parks, is protected by public police, fire, and health system, eventually, he dies, again in a hospital, and may even be buried in a public cemetery

Policy Evaluation and Policy Implementation

Introduction:
The final stage of the policy process in the sequential pattern of activities is the evaluation of the policy. Evaluation is concerned with what happens, once a policy has been put into effect. It is concern with the assessment or appraisal of policy.

Definition of Policy Evaluation:
Evaluation is not monitoring. Evaluation is retrospective and occurs after actions have been taken. It is concerned with trying to determine the impact of policy on real-life condition. In the words of whole, policy evaluation is the assessment of the overall effectiveness of a national programme in meeting its objectives or assessment of the relative effectiveness of two or more program in meeting common objectives.

Above the discussion, we can say as following-
1. Policy evaluation is final stage of the policy process.
2. Evaluation is concerned with what happens one’s policy has put into effect.
3. Concerned with assessment or appraisal.
4. Evaluation is retrospective and occurs return after have been taken.

Criteria for policy evaluation: Analysts use different types of criteria to evaluation policy outcomes.
1. Effectiveness: By effectiveness is meant the degree of objective achievement. It refers to whether a given course of action results in the attainment of an objective. It is often measured in terms of units of products or services or their monetary costs.
2. Efficiency: Efficiency is of critical importance in evaluating public policies. The term efficiency we use to denote the output/ input ratio of a public administration system or an organisational unit. By efficiency is meant the amount of effort required to produce a given level of effectiveness.
3. Adequacy: Adequacy refers to sufficiency for a specific requirement. Adequacy refers to whether a given level of effectiveness results in the satisfaction of needs or values. While the policy effectiveness criterion by the relationship between this two.
4. Equity: Equity refers to the distribution of effects and effort among different groups in society. For example, the criterion of equity implies the question, “Are costs and benefits distributed equitably among the different groups?” The criterion of equity is closely related to fair or just distribution of effects (monetary benefits) and effort (monetary costs).
5. Responsiveness: By the responsiveness is meant that a policy satisfies the needs or values of particular groups. Policies designed to promote educational opportunity or health status of the basis of the criterion of responsiveness.
6. Appropriateness: Finally the criterion of appropriateness is also used to evaluate policies. The criterion of opportunities is closely related to rationality. Appropriateness refers to the worth of the objectives of a programme. This dimension is concerned with judgement about a policy’s fitness and suitability.

Forms of policy evaluation: Policy evaluation is a difficult exercise. It is carried on in a variety of ways by a variety of evaluators.

1. Evaluation by operating staff: Evaluation by those delivering the programme has important implications. A big advantage is that an inside will have little problems regarding access to information. He has detailed knowledge of just what is involved.
2. Evaluation by specialized staff: Evaluation can be carried out by a specialized staff concerned with evaluation and analysis rather than policy delivery. A big advantage of evaluation by specialized staff is that do not have any vested interest in the continuation of any given programme.
3. Evaluation by parliamentary committees: Parliament and executive bodies which gave legal authority to policy are likely to be concerned with assessing success. Such evaluation may be directly conducted by the staff of the parliament or executive bodies or by commissioning outside consultants.
4. Evaluation by office of the comptroller and auditor general: the office of the comptroller and auditor general which is regarded as an arm of the parliament has broad statutory   authority to ensure the accountability of the executive parliament or the state legislature. It assists the legislature in the effective exercise of their financial control.
5. Evaluation by Public Inquiry commissions: Inquiry commissions constituted under the central vigilance commission, the law commission, planning commission, etc. can also be used as a means of policy evaluation. They are commissioned to ensure greater public confidence in the evaluation results either for reasons of expertise or because a report from the commissions might appear to be objective.

Issues of the Acceptability of Evaluation Results:
After the submission on the findings, the policy evaluator assumes that it will immediately be taken up the policy makers, especially if the evaluation had been commissioned by the government. Latter he finds that the evaluation results have not been utilized in most cases. In certain cases, if the policy implications of evaluation are not clear. If evaluation results are to be utilized they have to be in a communicable language comprehensible to decision makers. Such communication should include an indication of the limitation of the research measurement problems and the quality of information collected or the method of analysis.

Problems in Policy Evaluation: The evaluation of public programme is confounded by many factors. Some of these as following-
1. Unclear Policy Goals: If policy goals are unclear or are not specified in any measurable form, determining the extent to which they have been achieved becomes a complex and cumbersome task.
2. Problem of Measurement: even when the goals have been expressed in clear and concrete language. There is the difficulty of measuring the extent to which these goals have been achieved. In the public sector, measuring results is still more difficult. It is difficult to measure the performance of the public sector programmes in the absence of any ready means of judging the performance.
3. Problem of Targets: Related to the problem of determination and achievement goals, is the problem of target population. Data necessary to evaluate the programme may not be available or may be available on an unsuitable form. The information gathered in the  ensure of delivery of policy may highlight much about the characteristics of the people actually receiving the benefit but little regarding the target population.

Conclusion:
The final stage of the policy process is the assessment of what has happened regarding the implementation of the policy. Policy evaluation is a major political process. Evaluating a public programme involves in the listing of the goals of the programme, measuring the degree to which these goals have been achieved and finally suggesting changes that might bring the performance of the organisation more in line with the intended purpose of the programme


Policy Implementation
Policy implementation is the last stage to all of activities of policy regarding process. There are many model develop for policy implementation process that purpose is specific way identify by which policy implementation process become easy without face any critical barriers. For that Van Horn and Van Meter represent a model which is significant model of policy implementation process.

Definition of policy implementation:
Policy implementation as the process of putting actions into effect by public and private individuals. In its most general form it is the phase between a decisions and operations.
According to Williams, “In its most general form an inquiry about implementation …          seeks to determine whether an organization can bring together men and material in a cohesive organizational unit and motivate them in such a way as to carry out the organizations stated objectives.”
According to Donald S. Van Meter and Carl E. Van Horn, “Policy implementation encompasses those actions by public and private individuals (or group) that are directed at the achievement of objectives set forth in the prior of policy decisions.”

So we can simply say that the implementation process includes what goes on between the pronouncement of a policy and its actual effect. It is important to look at implementation not only in terms of putting policy into effect, but also in terms of observing what actually happens.

Policy implementation process model of Van Meter and Van Horn:
Donald S. Van Meter and Carl E. Van Horn have given a significant model for implementation process. Its have great utility in third world countries like Bangladesh. This model consists of several factors which shape the linkage between independent variables and the dependent variables of interest. It also makes explicitly the relationship among the independent variables. Furthermore it aids in the description of the policy implementation process and serve as a guide in research by generating suggestive hypothesis.

Hypothesis of the Model: we will classify policies according to two distinguishing characteristics-
The amount of change involved and the extent to which there is goal consensus among the participants in the implementation process.
The element of change is important in at least two respects.
1) Implementation will be affected by the extent to which the policy deviates from previous policy.
2) The implementation process will be influenced by the amount of organizational change that is required.

Policies which mandate change in the relationship among participants involved in the implementation process will be more difficult to carry out than will policies which require only marginal change in established relationship.
Variables/ Factors of the Model: There are 6 variables in this model which shape the linkage between policy and performance. These variables are-
1) Policy standards and objectives
2) Policy resources
3) Organisational communication and enforcement activities.
4) Economic, Social and Political conditions
5) The characteristics of the implementing agencies
6) The disposition of implementers

1) Policy standards and objectives: The subordinate’s participation in decision making will necessarily result in goal consensus: nor can it be concluded that the problems of implementation will be removed once goal consensus has been achieved.

The combination of these two features produces a typology of public policies as show in below-

Figure: Dimension of policy affecting implementation.


We are hypothesizing that implementation will be most successful where only marginal change is required and goal consensus is high, conversely where major change is mandated and goal consensus is low.
In determining standards and objectives one could use the statements of policy makes as reflected in numerous documents such as program regulation and guidelines which spell out the criteria for an evaluation of policy performance.
2) Policy Resources: policies furnish more than the standards and objectives against which to judge implementation: they also make available resources which facilitate their administration. The resources may include funds on other incentives in the program that might encourage on facilitate effective implementation.
3) Interorganizational communication and enforcement activities: communication within and between organisation is a complex and difficult process. In transmitting messages downward in an organisation or from one organisation to another. In the context of interorganisational (or inter governmental) relations two types of enforcement or follow up activities are-
a. Technical advice and assistance can be provided.
b. Superiors (or federal officials) can rely on a wide variety of sanctions both positive and negative.
4) Economic, Social and Political condition: The impact of economic, social and political conditions on public policy has been the comparative state politics and public policies have been particularly interested in identifying the influence of these environmental variables on policy outputs. Although the impact of these factors on the implementation of policy decisions has received little attention, they may have a profound effect on the performance of implementing agencies.
5) The characteristics of implementing agencies: Students of bureaucratic politics have identified many characteristics of administrative agencies that affect their policy performance. The following characteristics that may impose on an organizations capacity to implement policy.
a. The competence and size of an agency’s staff.
b. The degree of hierarchical control of sub-unit decisions and processes within the implementing agencies.
c. An agency’s political resources
d. The validity of organization
e. The degree of “open” communications within an organization
f. The agencies formal and informal linkages with the policy making or policy enforcing body.
6) The disposition of implementation: Each of the components of the model discussed above must be filtered through the perceptions of the implementers within the jurisdiction where the policy is delivered.
Three elements of the implementer’s response may affect their ability and willingness to carry out the policy,
a. Their cognition (comprehension understanding) of the policy.
b. The direction of their response toward it (acceptance, neutrality, rejection)
c. The intensity of that response.

Final comment: This model is relatively complex. However it is our contention that an examination of its several linkage will lead to more systematic explanations of policy performance. It aids in the description of policy implementation process and serves.

Policy Analysis System

Introduction:
The study of public policy prepares and helps us to cope better with the future. It improves our knowledge about the society. An important part of the study of public policy is concerned with society’s future. In most developed countries, policy analysis has been substantially stimulated by the governments increased corner for public policy problems. The attractiveness of the government as say research sponsor has also been enhanced. The acquisition and dissemination of information about public policies has become a major theme in social sciences, specially in the discipline of public administration. The use of such knowledge for making, managing and evaluating public policy is generally turned ‘policy analysis’.

Policy analysis:
Policy analysis is a technique measure organizational effectiveness through the examination and evaluation of the effect of a program. Public policy analysis is thus nothing more than estimating the impact of public policy on the government programs. The dictionary of public administration defines policy analysis as “a systematic and data based alternative to intuitive judgements about the effects of policy or policy options. It is used “ For problem assessment and monitoring,

a) As a ‘before the fact end’, decision tool, and
b) See for evaluation’.

Policy analysis as a technique puts data to use in, or deciding about, estimating and measuring the consequences of public policies. It provides maximum information with minimal cost about the-
1. the likely consequences of proposed policies, and
2. secondly, the actual consequence of the policies already adopted.
To achieve these two purposes of proposed, various methods or approaches are applied. Among the principal methodologies are-

a) systems analysis and simulation;
b) cost benefit analysis;
c) new approaches to budgeting;
d) policy experimentation; and
e) policy evaluation.
Stage:

The stage in policy analysis can be put as follows:
1. Identifying the underlying problem: For an analytic approach, the first step is to identify whether and why there is a problem at all. Defining the problem involves moving from mundane descriptions to a more abstracts, conceptual plane. Here, an attempt should be made to diagnose the form of market failure that is confronted.

2. Determining alternatives for policy choice: The next step is to determine alternative course of action. Government intervention can take any from. It is important to determine which kind of intervention is most positive in any particular situation.

3. Forecasting the consequences: Having identified the underlying problem and having determined the alternatives for policy choice, what are the consequences of each of the alternatives? For this, the policy analyst will turn to a relevant model for forecasting consequences.

4. Evaluating the outcomes: The next step relates to evaluating the policy choices. It is difficult to have a rational policy choice unless the relative merits of alternative options are compared.

5. Make a choice: It is the last step in policy analysis. The situation may be so simple for the policy maker that he can simply look at the consequences predicted for each alternative and select the one that is best.
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                                                   Figure: The Process of Analysis
Models of policy analysis:
System model for policy analysis:
The policy-making process has been regarded as a black box which converts the demands of the society into policies. Davis Easton in his Analysis of Political Systems argued that the political system was that part of the society engaged in the ‘authoritative allocation of values”

Inputs                Decision making process                 Outputs                  Policy outcomes

                                                      Figure: The Political System.

Inputs are seen as the physical, social, economical and political products of the environment. They are received into the political system in the form of both demands and support.
Rational model: Rational is considered to be the yardstick of wisdom in policy making. Two fundamental assumptions are the heart of the model. Decision makers are purposive and goal oriented.
(a) Decision makers always wanted to achieve their goal in the most formed, analytic, through and efficient manner.

The rational precept emphasizes that policy maker is making a choice among policy alternatives on rational grounds. Rational policy making is “to choose the one best option”
To select a rational policy, policy makers must-
 Know all the society’s values preferences and their relative weights.
 Know all the policy alternatives available
 Know all the consequences of each policy alternatives.
 Calculate the ratio of achievement to sacrificed social values for each policy alternatives.
 Select the most efficient policy alternatives.
 The predictive capacity to foresee accurately the consequences of alternatives policy and the intelligence to calculate correctly to ratio of costs benefits.
Finally rational policy making requires a decision-making system that facilitates rationality in policy formation. A diagram of such a system is shown in below

                                     Figure: A rational model of a decision system.

Limitation:
1. To be agreed upon all societal values is impossible.
2. The many conflicting values cannot be compared or weighted.
3. Power and influence affect during consideration social values.
4. Lack of motivation to make decision on the basis of social goals to politicians because politicians are hunger after power, status and wining re-election.
5. Large investment in existing programs and policies prevent policy makers from reconsidering alternatives foreclosed by previous decision.
Collect information about the alternative and its consequences is not easy.

Education Policy, Education Policy of Developing Country: Perspective Bangladesh

Introduction:
Education therefore has been recognized as a priority sector by all governments since her independence. What follows is a brief review of the education sector in Bangladesh as at present with a view to identifying key issues that need to be addressed, presented in Section 2. Section 3 highlights the key issues as identified by the Task Force. Section 4 presents a set of policy recommendations put forward by the Task Force for implementation during the five year term of the next elected Government.

Education Policy:
Education policy refers to the collection of laws and rules that govern the operation of education systems. Education encompasses teaching and learning specific skills, and also something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of knowledge, good judgment and wisdom. Education has as one of its fundamental goals the imparting of culture from generation to generation (see socialization).
"Education policy" refers to the collection of rules, both stated and implicit, or the regularities in practice that govern the behavior of persons in schools. Education policy analysis refers to the scholarly study of education policy. Examples of education policy analysis may be found in such academic journals as Education Policy Analysis Archives.

The salient features of the new education policy which is set to be enacted last December 2010:
Increase primary education from 5th to 8th class.
It will integrate Madras education and vocational education into the general education
It will establish mandatory core subjects for primary-level education: Bangla, English, mathematics,

Bangladesh Studies, social environment and climate change, and information technology and science.
Every School will have a mandatory library equipped with necessary books
More scholarships for the poor
No physical punishments
Arrangement of lunch for the students
Education for indigenous students in their mother tongues
Facilities for the disabled
        Standardization of teachers qualifications
More training for the teachers and promotion will be connected with experience and training and many more

Focus of the Government on Education:
The focus of the government on education as enunciated in different Policies and Five Year Plan Documents are:

 Provide value based education
 Emphasize on job-oriented and need-based education
 Modernization of curriculum
 Ensure efficient management at all levels
 Strengthen the Information and Communication Technology
 Ensure teacher effectiveness at all levels
 Revitalize technical and vocational education
 Ensure gender parity at all levels of education

General objectives of Education:

 To inspire and create enthusiasm among the learners in their thoughts, deeds and daily life to establish moral, humanitarian, religious, cultural and social values in personal as well as in national life.  
 To develop awareness in the learners to protect the independence, sovereignty and integrity of Bangladesh.  
 To make education pragmatic, productive and creative with a view to bringing about changes in the socio-economic conditions of the country and making the students into a dutiful and responsible manpower with scientific outlook and help them develop the qualities of leadership.  
 To give special emphasis on primary and secondary education with a view to expanding education, to instill respect and eagerness for physical labour and enable the learners acquire vocational education for self-employment in all stages of education.  
 To promote fraternity, moral values, generosity and fellow-feeling in people and make them respectful of human rights.
 To promote democratic values through fostering tolerance of one another's views and help develop life-oriented, realistic and positive attitude for blossoming democratic awareness.
 To ensure proper quality at every level of education; to strengthen and widen the knowledge, skills and attitude acquired in the previous stage (in accordance with various aims and objectives of education): to enable acquisition of new knowledge and skills and to encourage people to contribute in the system of education, especially in the field of primary, secondary and vocational education.  
 To emancipate the country from the curse of illiteracy.  
 To create equal opportunities for education in accordance with merit and aptitude for the purpose of building a society free from disparity.  
 To ensure gender parity in education and remove barriers of caste, creed and ethnicity in obtaining education.  
 To ensure constitutional guarantee at all levels of education.
 To create awareness about protection of environment.

The Education Sector of Bangladesh:
Structure: The education system in Bangladesh is characterized by co-existence of three separate streams. The mainstream happens to be a vernacular based secular education system carried over from the colonial past. There also exists a separate religious system of education. Finally, based on use of English as the medium of instruction, another stream of education, modeled after the British education system, using the same curriculum, has rapidly grown in the metropolitan cities of Bangladesh.
Management: The education system in Bangladesh is characterized by co-existence of three separate streams. The mainstream happens to be a vernacular based secular education system carried over from the colonial past. There also exists a separate religious system of education. Finally, based on use of English as the medium of instruction, another stream of education, modeled after the British education system, using the same curriculum, has rapidly grown in the metropolitan cities of Bangladesh.
Budgeting: Education in Bangladesh is basically state financed. Government allocations to the education sector out of its revenue and development budgets primarily finance educational expenditures. Given the low revenue / GDP ratio, the government however is heavily dependent on external sources for financing its development budget. External aid finances more than 50 percent of government development expenditures on education.

The full costs of government primary schools are borne by the government. The government also pays 90 percent of base teacher salaries of non-government registered primary schools. Besides, the non-government schools also receive grants from the government for repair of school building. The Upazila Nirbahi Officer (UNO) decides which school to receive grant and disburses the money. Students in both government and non-government registered schools receive free textbooks.

Different Components of the Education Sector in Bangladesh:
 Primary Education.
 Secondary and Higher Secondary Education.
 Madrasah Education.
 Education at Degree Colleges.
 University Education.
 Technical Education.

Key Issues that need to be addressed:
Based on the above discussion, for improved functioning of the education sector with a view to enhancing its role in promoting growth with equity in Bangladesh, the CPD Task Force on Education Policy has identified the following as key issues that need to be addressed during the next term of the government. The issues of access, equity and quality however being intertwined have to be looked at in totality in an integrated manner, and the strategies to address them must also look at the key areas simultaneously, not in a piecemeal fashion.

Primary Education:
Access:
Since provision of universal primary education has been recognized by the Bangladesh Constitution as a state responsibility, and Compulsory primary Education Law has already been enacted towards that end, it is extremely important to find ways and means to bring all school age children to primary schools.
CAMPE Survey conducted in 1998 found that the net enrolment at primary education in Bangladesh was 77 percent. That means, in 1998, 23 percent of all children of Bangladesh aged 6-10 did not have access to primary education.  The corresponding figure for Chittagong region was 26 percent, and in the urban slums of Dhaka the extent of deprivation turned out to be as high as 40 percent.
Equity:
Those left out included the working children from extremely poor households, physically and mentally handicapped, urban slum dwellers, residents of inaccessible rural areas, tribal’s, advises etc.

Quality:
There exists at present no mechanism for assessing learning achievement at primary level.  A nation wide survey conducted by CAMPE found that in 1998, only 29 percent of primary students achieved certain basic competencies. Although it was slightly higher compared to 27 percent achieved in 1993, it can hardly be called satisfactory.  Even this slight improvement was confined only to rural areas, as quality of primary education registered a marked decline in urban areas. Children from poorer families obviously suffered most from the above declining standard of education in urban primary schools.

Relevance:
Although by effecting necessary reforms in the curriculum of primary education, it was possible to widen the scope for primary education to play an increasingly important role in the national economy, failure to significantly improve its quality has contributed little to enhance its relevance.
Efficiency:
Although the dropout rate came down to 35 percent in 1999, it still remains quite high.  The CAMPE Survey revealed that the average attendance at schools was 62 percent only.  38 percent students repeated their courses. As a result it took 6.6 years to complete the five year course. All these indicate to poor efficiency of the system.

Secondary Education:
Access:
In a world of global market competition, the secondary level has become part of basic education that should be universally available. In Bangladesh, however, as most secondary schools belong to the private sector operating generally on commercial considerations, while prosperous regions experience a proliferation of such schools, many poor regions remain totally un-served  by any secondary school that acts as an effective barrier to access of children to secondary education.  Net enrolment ratios at 48.6 percent, 30.2 percent, and 16.2 percent at junior secondary, secondary, and higher secondary levels respectively can hardly be called satisfactory. Although gender disparity has significantly been removed up to secondary level, thanks to the stipend program for girls, girls' enrolment at higher secondary level is considerably lower compared to boys'. At junior secondary level on the other hand boys' enrolment rate is lower compared to girls'. The key issue therefore is how to significantly improve access of children to secondary education, and at the same time remove all existing gender disparities at different levels of secondary education.

Equity:
The problem of equity is worse compared to primary education. Tuition fees and other costs (for school uniform, text books, transport, private coaching etc) of secondary education including considerable opportunity costs serve as effective barriers to access for children from poorer households. Moreover, at this level of education, the social divide also gets prominently displayed. Elite mostly English medium system that functions with a degree of efficiency, and a mass system (bifurcated into a secular stream and a religious stream) considered largely dysfunctional are observed to coexist.
Quality:
Quality of education as reflected by performance of students at public examinations can hardly be called satisfactory. In 2001, nearly two thirds of all students who sat for the S.S.C. Examination failed.
Relevance:
Both in adequately preparing the students for higher education, and for meeting the manpower needs of the economy, secondary education in Bangladesh could hardly play an effective role.  
Efficiency:
With dropout rates at 21.3 percent, and 52.1 percent at junior secondary and secondary levels respectively in 1999, and failure rate at 65 percent at S.S.C. Examination in 2001, one can definitely raise questions about efficiency of our secondary education system.    

Tertiary Education:
Access:
Access cannot be universal at this level, but it has to expand substantially to meet the challenges of today's knowledge economy and information society. In 1999, compared to total enrolment of 12, 47,674 at higher Secondary level, enrolment at degree and master’s levels were 6, 50,277, and 74,979 respectively. Girls seem to have much lower access to tertiary education. At degree and masters level, they accounted for 32.6, and 26.3 percent of total enrolment at corresponding levels respectively.
Equity:
Equity is a major concern. Inequities at the previous levels are magnified by highly subsidized public education at tertiary level. Access to private universities being restricted only to those who can pay extremely high tuition fees only the children from affluent families can get themselves enrolled in such universities.
Quality:
Quality is a serious problem in tertiary education even at universities, both public and private. The University Grants Commission (UGC) has miserably failed in discharging its role as a guardian of public universities, and as a promoter of quality. It has also failed to institute a self-regulatory accreditation system for private universities.

Relevance:
In the absence of any linkage between public universities (with the exception of a few Departments like Business Administration, Pharmacy etc.) and the job market, education imparted at public universities had little relevance to the needs of the economy. Private universities on the other hand responded only to market signals, relevant to the economy in the short run, and neglected long term interests of the economy.
Efficiency:
Long session jams, a characteristic feature of public universities, is a clear indicator of inefficient management of public universities of Bangladesh.

Conclusion:
On the basis of experience in countries which have registered rapid progress in education and national development as well as independent studies and analyses, the Task Force recommends the following key measures to address the nexus of access, equity, and quality at different levels of education, and also for enhancing the relevance of education, and efficiency of the delivery mechanism

Model

Introduction:
The study of public policy or the actions of government can be approached in a number of ways. Major theoretical approaches to the study of public policy include rational model, elite model, group model and stage or process model. Each of these approaches focuses attention of politics that are more or less relevant to the study of public policy, depending upon what policy on policies are under discussion.

What is Model:
In general sense, a model is a simplified representation of some aspects of the real world. It may be an actual physical representation.
According to Oxford Dictionary, “Model means small scale representation or reproduction or design to be copied by person or things”
According to Thomas R. Dye, “Model is a simplified representation of a real life situation”
So we can say, model is a diagram or a road map of a real things.”

Public Policy Model:
The models we shall use in studying public policy are conceptual models. These are word models which try to-
1. Simplify and clarify our thinking about politics and public policy.
2. Identify important aspects of policy problems.
3. Help to communicate each others by focusing on essential features of political life.
4. Direct our efforts to better understand public policy by suggestion.
5. Suggest explanation for public policy and predict its consequences.

Over the years, a number of models have been developed to help us understand political life. Throughout this part we will try to explain this model which as follows.
1. Rational model.
2. Elite model.
3. Incremental model.
4. Institutional model.

 Rational model: Rational is considered to be the yardstick of wisdom in policy making. Two fundamental assumptions are the heart of the model.
(a) Decision makers are purposive and goal oriented.
(b) Decision makers always wanted to achieve their goal in the most formed, analytic, through and efficient manner.
The rational precept emphasizes that policy maker is making a choice among policy alternatives on rational grounds. Rational policy making is “to choose the one best option”
To select a rational policy, policy makers must-

 Know all the society’s values preferences and their relative weights.
 Know all the policy alternatives available
 Know all the consequences of each policy alternatives.
 Calculate the ratio of achievement to sacrificed social values for each policy alternatives.
 Select the most efficient policy alternatives.
 The predictive capacity to foresee accurately the consequences of alternatives policy and the intelligence to calculate correctly to ratio of costs benefits.


Finally rational policy making requires a decision-making system that facilitates rationality in policy formation. A diagram of such a system is shown in below-

                                             Figure: A rational model of a decision system.

Limitation:
1. To be agreed upon all societal values is impossible.
2. The many conflicting values cannot be compared or weighted.
3. Power and influence affect during consideration social values.
4. Lack of motivation to make decision on the basis of social goals to politicians because politicians are hunger after power, status and wining re-election.
5. Large investment in existing programs and policies prevent policy makers from reconsidering alternatives foreclosed by previous decision.
6. Collect information about the alternative and its consequences is not easy.

 Elite Model: Elite is a group of people who play dominant role in their respective area because of having some unique qualities and characteristics.

Public policy making elite is use to mean a group of people who are able to act in an environment that is characterized by apathy information distortion and thereby govern a largely passive mass then normally we often say public policy reflects the demand of  “the people” this may express the myth rather than the reality. Elite theory suggests that mass people are apathetic and in informed about public policy. This is the elite who actually shaper the mass opinion.


Features of Elite:
1. Elite belongs some unique qualities.
2. Mass people are apathetic.
3. Elite shape the opinion of mass but the masses can not shape the opinion of elite.
4. People is the termed as myth in policy making.

Why Elite shape opinion of mass people:
1. Elite belongs some unique qualities.
2. Elite share the common values that separate them form the masses.
3. They have higher income.
4. They have higher status.
5. They have network with bureaucrats.
6. They have net work with politicians.


Elite Model Figure: We can explain the elite model by a figure where policy flows downward from the elite level to mass level.

                                                                                                 

                       
                                                            Figure : The Elite Model

Elite theory can be summarized briefly as follows-
1. Society is divided into the few parts who have power and the many who not.
2. Few people decide policy for mass people.
3. The movement of non elites to elite position must be slow and continuous to maintain stability and avoid revolution.
4. Elite shares consensus in behalf of the basic values of social system and the preservation of the system.
5. Public policy reflects values and information of elite not the demand of mass people.

Finally elites prefer incremental policy rather than revolutionary.

Limitations:
1. In this model public policies are frequently modified but seldom replaced.
2. Elite do not welfare of mass people. They carry the responsibilities of mass welfare.
3. Elitism contents that the masses have at best ownly and indirect influence over the decision making behaviour of elite. Example: Casting vote in election.
4. Elites manipulate the support of mass people through sharing common consensus about fundamental laws like constitutional government, majority rule freedom of speech, press, equal opportunities for all in every aspect of life.

 Incremental Model:
Incrementalism views public policy as a continuation of past government activities with only incremental modification. Political scientist Charles F. Lindblom first presented the incremental model. According to him, decision makers do not annually review the whole range of existing and proposed policies, identify social goals, research the benefit and cost of alternative policies in achieving these goals, rank order preferences for each policy alternative in terms of the ratio of benefits to cost and then make a selection on the basis of all relevant information. The main focus of this model is “old wine in new bottle”  

                                      Figure: The incremental model

Why policy maker prefer incremental model:
1. Shortage of time, knowledge, non availability of fund and to invest all alternatives.
2. Legitimacy of previous policy.
3. Require huge investment shift to radical change.
4. Incremental helps in reducing conflict maintaining stability and preserving political system itself.
5. Finally, in the absence of any agreed upon social goals or values. It is easier for the government of a pluralist society to continue existing programs rather than to engage in overall policy planning toward specific social goals.

Limitations:
1. The theory fails to specify any boundaries for what structure an incremental change.
2. It becomes even more difficult to determine quantitative measurement an increment.
3. Relationship among power, conflict the process of choosing a policy alternative and the policy outcome.

System Model: 

The system model relies on concept of information theory (feedback, input, output) and treats the process as being essentially cyclical. The policy making process has been regarded as a black box, which converts the demands of the society into policies. Forces generated in the environment, which affect the political system, are viewed as inputs. Outputs of the political system are authoritative value allocations of the system, and these allocations constitute public policy. Demands occur when individuals or group, in response to real or perceived environmental conditions, act to affect public policy. Support is rendered when individuals or groups accept the outcome of elections, obey the laws, pay their taxes, and generally conform to policy decisions.  

Models of policy analysis:
System model for policy analysis:
The policy-making process has been regarded as a black box which converts the demands of the society into policies. Davis Easton in his Analysis of Political Systems argued that the political system was that part of the society engaged in the ‘authoritative allocation of values”