The USA Mirror: Contemporary Trend of Educational Institution Development in Europe: Strategic development of European Schooling, Management and Policies in three Countries (Sweden, Denmark and Austria)

The European Union (EU) is an exclusive economic and political union between 28 European countries that together covering much of the continent. The EU has delivered more than half a century of peace, stability and prosperity, helped raise living standards and launched a single European currency. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for peace, understanding, democracy and human rights in Europe. One of the the abolition of border controls between EU countries, people can travel freely across the EU continent. It has an area of 4,324,782 km, with a probable population of over 508 million. In 2014, the EU had a combined GDP of 18.640 trillion international dollars. Education is one of those things which are considered pretty significant throughout the European Union. But it still remains that not every country does it the same and indeed some countries are better than others. In the EU people often undertake that their own education systems are the best, but that may not really.

In Sweden, Enrolment rates for early childhood and primary education are comparatively high. About 90% of three-year-olds appear school (with the OECD average of 69%), and 94% of four-year-olds do (the OECD average is 81%). Comparatively few young people in Sweden are neither in education nor working. In fact, Sweden has one of the lowest percentages among all OECD countries. Only 5.4% of 15-19 year-olds in Sweden are in this group. Temporarily, 87% of 24-65 year-olds have attained at least an upper secondary education, compared with 74% across OECD countries. This difference is widest among the oldest age cohort. While some 91% of 24-35 year-olds have attained at least an upper secondary education (the OECD average is 82%). In the most recent test in 2012, Sweden ranked 28 among the 34 OECD countries in mathematics, 27 in reading and 27 in science.

According to at a Glance 2014, In 2008 Denmark was one of the OECD countries with the lowest unemployment rates for each level of educational success, ranking second for pre-primary, nine placed for primary and eleventh for Secondary education out of 38 OECD countries respectively in 201. However, although the Danish unemployment rates for each of these education achievement levels were at least twice as high in 2012 as in 2008 they were still lower than the OECD average. The standard student in Denmark marked 498 in reading literacy, math’s and sciences, above the OECD average of 497. The best performance school systems manage to provide high-quality education to all students. The Education Index, published with the UN Human Development Index, in 2008, based on data from 2006, lists Denmark as 0.993, amongst the highest in the world.

According to OECD at a Glance 2014, Enrolment rates for level of 5-14 year-olds average 98%, and Rank among OECD countries and partner countries 22 out of 44 in 2012. According to OECD Index, Austrians can expect to go through 17.1 years of education between the ages of 5 and 39, slightly less than the OECD average of 17.5 years. Modifying from upper secondary education has become gradually important in all countries, as the skills needed in the labor market are becoming more knowledge-based. High-school rates therefore provide a good indication of whether a country is making its students to meet the minimum requirements of the job market. In Austria, 83% of adults aged 25-64 have completed upper secondary education, higher than the OECD average of 76%. The average pupil in Austria scored 500 in reading literacy, math’s and sciences, slightly higher than the OECD average of 497. The best-performing school systems manage to provide high-quality education to all students.

Above this reason I have selected three country’s Sweden, Denmark and Austria for proper observation of Schooling in EU. In my whole paper there are four chapters for the first chapter, I analyze Educational Policies and reform those three countries. In chapter Second, strategic and strategic planning and development in schooling between Sweden, Denmark and Austria. However, chapter Three, I try to focus on schooling as a organization and structure and development processes. At the end, I discuss about what is the responsibilities as a HR in School and improvement. Finally, I summarized all development to show why one education system is better than others.

Chapter 1: International Education Policies and Reform:

1.1. International Education Development and Policies:

People are the real wealth of nations (UNDP 2010) and education assists them to live healthier, better-off, and more fruitful lives. That global economic growth remains slow-moving despite signs of recovery from the latest economic crisis, the lack of the “right” skills in the staff has taken on a new determination across the world (World Bank 2010b). International unemployment, estimated at 205 million in 2009, is at an all-time high (ILO 2011). The Universal Statement of Human Rights (1948) and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) recognize a child’s right to an education a universal acknowledgment that removing a child of the opportunity to basic skills is equal to depriving that child of the chance to have a sustaining life. Education develop the quality of people’s lives in ways that transcend benefits to the different and the family by contributing to economic success and reducing poverty and deprivation. Countries with low levels of education continue in a trap of technological immobility, low growth, and low petition for education. Research assessing the link between the quantity of education and economic growth has been inspiring (Hanushek and Woessmann 2008). Education reforms and policy are being applied in many parts of the world, in situations that are extremely different both culturally and in terms of economic development. Education policies and plans such as child-center pedagogies, school-based management, teachers’ responsibility, public private corporations or conditional-cash transmission systems are being discussed and implemented universally, to the point that they have learnt the status of ‘global education polices’ (GEP).

At the micro level, education produces its greatest benefits in nations undergoing rapid technological and economic change because it can give workforces the ability to continue developing skills throughout life, as well as the ability to adjust to new technology. Throughout India’s green revolution in the mid-1960s, farmers with more schooling in states that skilled vaster technical revolution earned profits higher than those earned by farmers with less education. Now Ghana, Pakistan, and China production returns to schooling have been likely to be higher in nonfarm actions, where fast technological change frequently takes place, than in farm activities. Today, India’s economy is anticipated to continue rising at more than 8 percent annually, additional growing the demand for abilities and employee flexibility as technological change marches on. The development benefits of education extend healthy beyond effort productivity and growth to include better health, reduced productiveness, an enhanced capability to adopt new technologies with economic surprises, more civic contribution, and even more globally friendly behavior. A few such benefits include:

Ø The educated parents have healthier children, even after calculating for household income. Education increases knowledge of the benefits of vaccination and policies for avoiding the communication of infectious diseases (Gakidou et al. 2010).

Ø “Better coping with economic shocks. Households with more education cope better with economic shocks than less educated households, since they tend to have more resources and knowledge about how to cope with income fluctuations. Such households are also abler to exploit new economic opportunities. In Indonesia and Argentina, for example, more educated households fared better than less educated households during these countries’ respective macroeconomic crises” (Frankenberg, Smith, and Thomas 2003 and Corbacho, Garcia-Escribano, and Inchauste 2007).

In all governments assume the accountability for giving their people the opportunity to become educated and thus receive these profits. Investing in education is a key item on the agenda as the world for the development community to recover from crisis, as debated in the Bank Group’s “New World, New World Bank Group: Post-Crisis Directions” strategy paper (World Bank 2010b). Developing countries, are often highly dependent on foreign expertise, information and financing (Rose 2007). In fact, in low-income contexts, there is a larger presence of outward actors involving international NGOs, donor agencies and international organizations (IOs) that have a great capability both material and ideational to set agendas and country priorities. In this sense, these countries’ policy is much more penetrated than nations in more developed societies (Grek et al. 2009). Indeed, education policy is internationalized due to the authority of the global economy over the national politics. Basically, it reasons that education policy presently is formed and applied in a universal context.

http://www.youthmetro.org/uploads/4/7/6/5/47654969/the_impact_of_globalization_on_education_policy_of_developing_countries_oman_as_an_example.pdf

More Schooling, Little Learning: Likened with two decades ago, more young people are entering school, finishing the primary level, and pursuing secondary education. The effective policies and continued national savings in education, far fewer children in developing countries are out of school. Governments, civil society organizations (CSOs), communities, and private initiatives have built new schools and classrooms and recruited teachers at unprecedented levels. In Developing countries, average enrollment rates in primary education have flowed upwards of eighty percent, and primary achievement rates, above sixty percent. Between 1991 and 2008, the ratio of girls to boys in primary and secondary education in the increasing world improved from 84 to 96 percent, with even higher gains in the Middle East, North Africa and the South Asia region. Though, the Developing countries as a collection are still far from reaching the education Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): universal primary education as dignified by enrollment and primary achievement rates, and gender equivalence in primary and secondary education. In these countries, it may take aimed efforts on top of broad reforms to address the particular reasons why children and youth are out of school.

As researchers, advocates, and governmental leaders from throughout the world embark on a conversation of how to develop a set of sustainable development goals (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, n.d.), it is significant to analytically examine procedures of improvement, expansion, and application of GEPs and their potential effects in diminishing or intensifying inequities. Global Education Policy and International Development: New Agendas, Issues and Policies delivers fundamental insights into the principal issues that need to be considered by scholars, policy makers, and specialists working in the intersecting fields of education and international development.

(http://hepg.org/her-home/issues/harvard-educational-review-volume-84-number-1/herbooknote/global-education-policy-and-international-developm)

1.2. Schooling policy Development in international organizations:

In the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), have occurred in some form since the period after World War II. They are all organization making education policies which are decisively shaping current directions and developments in national education systems. Nevertheless, it is from the 1990s on that the size, the role and choice of their policy agendas have extended dramatically, communicating but also defining the process of globalization. The enhanced role of World Bank, WTO and OECD in education policy. It is now common acquaintance that due to the better cross-border mobility of capital, products, services, info and specially due to the wider range of action that economic markets and big businesses have acquired, states’ ability to organize production and to control their financial policies has been severely restricted. The new telecommunication technologies have largely de-territorialized information and knowledge transmission. Nation-states, inter-state unions, regional and local governments to make policies concerning an extensive variety of areas1.

Education is a powerful driver to development and is one of the strongest mechanisms for dropping poverty and developing health, gender equality, peace, and immovability. While there has been huge progress in the last decade, some 121 million children are still out of primary and lower secondary school, and 250 million children cannot read or write although many have been to school. Education has great but this potential is too often unrealized due to alarmingly low learning levels. Delivering all children with a quality education that teaches them skills for work is analytical to end poverty by 2030 (World Bank, 2016). The World Bank which has been working in education policy2 and this has been the case since 1962. The World Bank is the leading loan provider for education programs, that is useful in around 85 countries. In 1990s, the amounts lent by the World Bank for education plans represented 27% of worldwide external finance on education and 40% of the total aid providing for education by international organizations (Jallade, Radi, and Cuenin 2001). In Africa, during the same decade, the loans and finances provided by the World Bank signified 16% of the total amounts made presented for education by African governments (Alexander 2001). However, despite these amounts and in spite of the huge number of countries trusting on its loans, it is not the World Bank’s share in the global spending on education which makes its role financially important. Clearly, all this funding is providing on specific terms and conditions, which define directly or indirectly the educational policy (Harvey 2005; Klein 2007) lines to be followed.

The WTO’s main aim is not to give loans but to abolish margins in global trade and to open selectively domestic markets to capital flows. This organization too has its roots in the outcome of World War II, which led to the current form and name of this organization. On the basis of the GATS, the WTO is reducing price barriers and margins, not only in trade, but also in services. This is actually the way to affects education: by defining education as a ‘service’ (WTO 1998). The WTO is trying to make a free international market in education. The policy is simplified by the fact that contribution in all education phases is now great, that states are unwilling to pay and that the new technologies allow for knowledge communication beyond national restrictions.

The OECD is an international mechanism of surveillance of economic performance and a crucial sphere of influence on the global political scene (Henry et al. 2001). The OECD’s education policy has a history of over half a century, its famous ‘national reports’ on education systems were reduced drastically in favor of ‘thematic analyses’. All educational areas, even pre-school education, have come under the inspection of OECD’s contracted research and consultancy networks, representing a notable expansion of responsibility and scope in the range of education policy making globally. Today, hardly any country related to the OECD ignores its data and recommendations on education. Likewise, individual member states of the European Union (EU) can barely ignore its education policy, particularly after the Council of Lisbon of 2000. However, the EU is the prominent model of worldwide education policy (Lawn 2002; Kuhn and Sultana 2005; Moutsios 2004, 2007), and international organizations play a significant function.

On the World Bank/IMF, the OECD and the WTO as contexts of international policy making, sustained by their member states, but this policy making is re-contextualized in specific nations. Moreover, the policies produced are not merely the outcome of inter-national relations. The World Bank/IMF, the OECD and the WTO are pivotal in the respect, as: “It is essentially here, rather than in national arenas, public spheres, that the rules of the meta-power game of global politics are being transferred, written and rewritten, rules which then change national politics and societies fundamentally” (Beck 2005, 162). As indicated this concerns education policy building too and affects decisively current directions and developments in national education systems. The ideological basis of these institutions’ educational policies as well as the power relations between their member states leading to these policies.

http://sites.miis.edu/comparativeeducation/files/2013/01/International-organisations-and-transnational-education-policy.pdf (International organisations and transnational education policy

1.3. Schooling Policy in Selected Three European Countries:

EU counties is responsible for its individual schooling and training systems. EU policy is planned to support state action and help address common challenges, for example, ageing societies, skills deficits in the staff, technological improvements and universal competition. Schooling and training 2020 (ET 2020) is the structure for support in schooling and training. ET 2020 is a forum for conversations of best performs, shared learning, gathering and distribution of information and indication of what works, as well as recommendation and maintenance for policy reforms. In order to confirm the successful achievement of ET 2020, Working Groups calm of experts selected by member countries and other key investors work on common EU-level tools and policy guidance. Finance for policy funding and innovative projects is open through Erasmus+ for events that promote learning and education at all levels and for all age groups. ET 2020 established four common EU objects to statement in schooling and training systems by 2020, In 2009:

Ø Building lifelong learning and mobility a reality

Ø Educating the quality and efficiency of education and training

Ø Supporting equity, social cohesion, and active citizenship

Ø Developing creativity and innovation, including entrepreneurship, at all levels of education and training.

The European Commission works with EU countries to improve their school education systems. The European Commission maintenances nationwide efforts in two main ways: firstly, The EU works strictly with national policy-makers to help them develop their school education policies and systems. It gathers and shares information and analysis and encourages the exchange of good policy practices through the schools’ policy thematic working groups. Secondly, Through the Erasmus+programme, it invests millions of euros each year in projects that promote school exchanges, school development, the education of school staff, school assistantships.

The key capabilities knowledge, skills, and attitudes that will help pupils find individual fulfilment and, find work and take part in society. These key competences include traditional abilities such as communication in one's mother tongue, foreign languages, digital skills, literacy, and basic skills in math’s and science, as well as horizontal skills for example, learning to learn, social and civil duty, initiative and entrepreneurship, cultural consciousness, and innovation. The approach is to support key competences by:

· delivering high-quality learning for all students based on relevant curricula;

· dropping early school-leaving

· growing early childhood education

· developing support for teachers, school leaders, and teacher educators

Early childhood education and care: Early childhood education and care can lay the basics for later success in life in terms of education, well-being, employment skill, and social integration, particularly for children from disadvantaged backgrounds. Schooling and care systems for young children (from birth to compulsory school age) vary in different countries; EU countries are accommodating to develop high-quality and manageable providing across the Member States. The EU commission has set out the main concern for early childhood education and care with the purpose of improving access to and the feature of services from birth to the start of compulsory schooling. Work on this started in 2012 in collaboration with international organizations and investors. The significances are:

· developing policy guidance;

· developing more European data and research;

· supporting the most effective use of European funding.

By 2020 at least 95% of pre-school children of 4 years or older should contribute in early childhood education. Countries’ developments in relation to the target are examined on a yearly basis; EU countries are presently developing processes to inspector the quality of early childhood schooling and care. These struggles are coordinated by the Thematic Working Groups for Schools policy.

Early school leaving: Early school leaving is connected to unemployment, social exclusion, and poverty. The way the education system is set up and the environment in separate schools are also important factors. Since there is not a single reason for early school leaving, there are no easy answers. Policies to reduce early school leaving must address a range of triggers and combine education and social policy, youth work and health related features such as drug use or mental and emotional problems. In June 2010, EU countries have committed to reducing the average share of early school drops to less than 10% by 2020 education ministers agreed on a structure for comprehensible, complete, and evidence-based policies to tackle early school leaving. They will work together and discussion best-practices and knowledge on successful ways to address early school leaving Between 2011 and 2013 a working group on early school leaving, carrying together policy makers and practitioners from nearly all EU countries, as well as Norway, Iceland, and Turkey, has looked at good practice examples in Europe and exchanged experiences in reducing early school leaving, (Colombo, S. 1. Youth Activism)

Migration & ethnic diversity: Schools across Europe are seeing a rise in the number of children born and raised in a different country. This can place straining on language teaching ability and many immigrant children gap following in academic achievement. In fact, students born outside the EU are twice as likely to leave school early. At the same time, improved variety is an opportunity to make schools more inclusive, productive and open-minded, (Rodríguez-Pose, A., & Vilalta-Bufí, M. (2005).

The teaching professions: The knowledge, skills and attitudes of each of Europe's 6 million teachers are of great importance. The quality of their teaching has a direct influence upon learners’ achievement. The demands make on teachers, school leaders, and teacher educators are growing and moving. They are called on to play a crucial role in improving education. To do that, they need to improve their own knowledge and abilities. Initial education and continuous professional development of the highest quality, and access to support during their careers are both fundamental. The European Commission workings with EU countries to promotion standards of teaching and teacher education by simplifying the exchange of information and knowledge between policy-makers; supporting projects through the Erasmus+ program.

Re:

Konseyi, A. B. (2009). Council conclusions of 12 May 2009 on a strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training (ET 2020). Official Journal of European Communities, 15.

Council, E. U. (2009). Council conclusions of 12 May 2009 on a strategic framework for European cooperation in education and training (‘ET 2020’). JO C, 119(2).

Colombo, S. 1. Youth Activism, Government Policies and the Role of the EU. IEMed., 6.

Rodríguez-Pose, A., & Vilalta-Bufí, M. (2005). Education, migration, and job satisfaction: the regional returns of human capital in the EU. Journal of Economic Geography, 5(5), 545-566.

1.3.1. Sweden:

The Swedish population is around nine million, and the cities surround on average about 30,000 people. However, there is a very wide difference in population size, with some municipalities surrounding just a few thousand citizens, and others well over 100,000 people. Competed with the OECD average, Sweden is a wealthy, healthy and well educated society. General educational achievement is quite high, with at least 80% of the population having reached upper secondary schooling. Swedish spending on education is among the highest in the world. In Swedish, the highest budgets are for health care and the care taking of elderly people (40%). In second place are schooling (32%) and in third place budgets for pre-schools and child care (13%) (SKL, 2005). However, the development during the last decade has led to a higher variation between different income groups. This creates a new reality for schools as children and youth from different homes have different acquisitive basics when they attend school. School heads and teachers have to be conscious of and stability this situation. The level of educational achievement of the population is comparatively high, with less than 20% of adults having below upper secondary education, and almost 18% having tertiary education. Enrolment rates in the different education levels are quite high from pre-school all the way throughout post-compulsory education. The Swedish population is highly educated and highly literate. According to the International Adult Literacy Survey, Sweden had the highest average score out of 22 countries, with high literacy levels even for those adults who had not reached upper secondary education. In terms of the literacy scores of 15 year olds based on the Project for International Student Assessment (PISA), Sweden has performed above the OECD standard in reading, with a small average deviation. However, in scientific and mathematic literacy, while high, performance has not touched the same levels as reading. Still, it is important to say that the increase of these consequences has been smaller than in the OECD on standard, except for scientific literacy. PISA results for Sweden also show that there are small changes in performance between schools, implying that presentation is largely unrelated to the school children attend, although judgment of results from 2000 and 2003.

https://www.oecd.org/sweden/38613828.pdf (Improving school leadership Background report Sweden February 2007 )

Schooling policy in Sweden: In Sweden has equal to free education from the age of six. Through Swedish Education Act, the school system is planned, which is the minimum amount of time to be completed on each subject and ensures a safe and friendly environment for pupils (Published by the Swedish Institute, May 2015). As stated in the Education Act, one of the basic principles of the education system is that everyone must have entrance to equivalent education, regardless of ethnic and social education. However, Compulsory school and upper secondary school are both comprehensive schools, planned to accommodate all pupils, and all schools are co-educational. The act also mandates nine years of school attending for all children from the year they turn seven. The Education Act originated into effect in 1986 and exchanged an earlier Act from 1962. The Education Act instructs the legal framework for education, and more specified regulations are given in the statutes for the different kinds of schools. The teaching and course curricula state the educational purposes, and express program objectives for upper secondary and adult education. The Education Act concerns to the whole public education system, pre-school activities and child care, compulsory school; upper secondary school, schools for mentally handicapped pupils and physical disabilities.

In December 1993, the Swedish Parliament adopted law establishing new curricular guidelines for the whole school system, geared to the new target and result-oriented steering system for schools. This has led to wide variations in the curriculum, syllabi and timetables as well as in the assessment of pupils at the compulsory school level. The new schooling system has been active since the 1995/96 school year for Grades I-VII of compulsory school, Mandatory school for the mentally disabled and special school and for the whole of schools. The reform is fully applied as from the 1997/98 school year. The Regulation for the compulsory schools, approved on June 1994, regulates compulsory schools. The Law for the upper secondary schools, adopted on May 1992, regulates upper secondary schools. Moreover, Compulsory education in Sweden takings the form of a nine-year comprehensive school for children aged 7-16. Since 1991, children have a right to start school at the age of six if their parents so desire and if the municipality has the capacity to offer this opportunity. The results of extending compulsory schooling to ten years are now being debated.

http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/archive/Countries/WDE/2006/WESTERN_EUROPE/Sweden/Sweden.htm

During the 1990s, a fundamental reform of the education policy was carried out, covering pre-school actions, compulsory and secondary schools. The developments involved a decentralization of the school system, and school management shifting from a training of regulatory administration to a more goal oriented management, with fewer policies and clearer goals. In July 1995, a new curriculum was presented for the entire school system. The new division of duty entails a shift from governing and resource-oriented management to result-oriented management by objectives. In the regulatory management of schools, the organization of the schools and the content and working approaches used in education were to a large degree decided at the national level. In a gradually complex and fast changing society, this highly planned approach has been judged less viable. In 1993, every municipality was made reliable for the distribution of resources for schools in their jurisdiction. The purpose of deregulating and decentralizing actions was to make a secondary school system with enough flexibility to be able to modification and keep up with the times; to give citizens living in the community better insight and more chance to encouragement the access to, and quality and content of, public sector activities; and to streamline national management, adaptation it more cost-efficient, with an end to enhancing the improvement of education actions.

In 1985, the Government decided that all children aged one year-eighteen months to school age would have access to an organized form of pre-school education. In addition, pre-school and child-care actions were placed under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education and Science in July 1996. The curriculum for pre-school education was issued in 1998, in the form of a statute with rightfully binding instructions for the metropolis and the preschool. Earlier, the pedagogic program for pre-schools took the form of general suggestions. During the 1990s, a great deal of developments happened in the primary and secondary system. The compulsory (nine-year) school follows a nationally standard timetable throughout which every pupil is certain a programmed number of instructional hours in each subject. There are now seventeen national agendas at the upper secondary level, all of which are three-year programs (including a new agenda in technology added in 2000). The Education Act specifies that the education accessible in all forms of schooling will be equal in all parts of the country. In 1999, 90.3% of children leaving compulsory school met the needs for eligibility to continue their education at the upper secondary level. Therefore, statistics show that 80% of Swedish compulsory school students are succeeding the set goals with regard to knowledge.

In order to growth the relevance of upper secondary education, the improvement also included parts of the education being lead in the workplace. Furthermore, one of the projects marked at growing the quality and justice in education is that of information technology (IT) in the schools. Through the significant efforts during the period 1999-2001, 40% of compulsory and upper secondary teachers are being proposed the opportunity to enhance their IT skills and schools are being providing access to computers and the Internet. However, at the beginning of the 1990s in specific, municipalities struggled with declining resources, which led to the state having to allocate substantial development funding in order to develop educational activities. One of the primary factors constraining education development is the lack of time for evaluation and planning. Goal and result oriented government of education presupposes that school teachers use local action plans and grading principles, and evaluate educational actions. There is a leaning in many municipalities for the accountability of education to be fragmented among different performers (politicians, administrative bodies, school administrators and teachers), between whom collaboration in education development is wanting. Beside with the optimistic outcomes of this, have also come improved stress and an academic concentration on Swedish, English and mathematics in mandatory school.

In accordance with the new policy for global development implemented in 2003, the policy aims to provide to the reaching of the Millennium Development Goals. For the field of education, this means that further measures should be taken to improve links with developing countries throughout mobility and exchange, and that encouragement be providing for the making of education systems and research institutions in partner countries. Support should be delivered continuously to Swedish development research and to the establishment of a resource base for development collaboration in Sweden.

1.3.2. Denmark

In Denmark, it is the philosophy that the free select of school and education is of fundamental significance to a well-functioning education system. The free choice involves that the institutions must to a larger extent be worthy of the pupils. Private schools are acknowledged and receive administration financing regardless of the ideological, religious, political or ethnic enthusiasms behind their founding. Danish school system is planned in three stages: non-compulsory day care for children from age 0-5, compulsory primary and lower secondary education for children from age 6-16, and upper secondary education for young people aged 16-19 (Houlberg et al., 2016 and Eurydice, 2016 for further information). This report focuses on public municipal primary and lower secondary education.

· All children in Denmark from the age of 26 weeks to the start of compulsory education have the right to receive non-compulsory day care. Day care can be provided through private child-minders and public or private nurseries, kindergartens and age-integrated institutes (Eurydice, 2016). Contribution in early childhood education and care is international standards (OECD average: 74.0% of 3-year-olds, 87.6% of 4-year-olds, and 94.8% of 5-year-olds, OECD, 2015c).

· The compulsory education is providing in one single integrated structure. Since 2009, all children aged 6 begin their schooling with one year of compulsory pre-school (Year 0). Children then continue with 9 years of schooling which they complete with a compulsory school leaving examination. In Years 8 to 10, pupils have the option of moving to continuation schools (Efterskole). In 2013, 4.8% of all students in the Folkeskole joined a special needs school, likened to 5.8% in 2010 (Houlberg et al., 2016).

· End of Year 9, students have the choice of joining a voluntary Year 10 if they wish. In 2013/14, 37 975 pupils decided to take a tenth year, 17 316 of which chose to do so at a public school (Danish Ministry for Children, Education and Gender Equality, 2016a).

· Upper secondary education, or youth education as it is called in Denmark, is divided into general programs succeeding pupils mainly for access to higher education and vocational programs qualifying learners primarily for a career in a particular trade or industry. In 2013, 56.7% of upper secondary learners were registered in an overall program and 43.3% of students in a vocational program (OECD average: 53.6% and 46.4% respectively, OECD, 2015c).

End of the school day and during some school holidays, children and young people can appear different vacation or youth clubs at public or private schools (Skolefritidsordning og Fritidshjem [SFO] and Fritids- og ungdomsklubber) that proposal a range of social and inventive activities varying on their age. (Re: OECD Reviews of School Resources Denmark)

Schooling policies and Developing: In November 2011, the Danish government run by the Social Democrats announced its government program. The program founded the key main concern for education, for example developing early childhood education and care and reforming primary and lower secondary schools in co-operation with teachers and parents. The program arranged a number of aims as well as measurable goals and targets to growth the number of young people achieving a vocational education and training. The specific goals and targets specified that by 2020, 95% of a group should achieve an upper secondary education, 60% of a group should reach a tertiary education, and 25% of a group should achieve a long tertiary education, (OECD, 2015b).

In June 2015, the new government program set out the management's vision of improving day care by concentrating on smoother changes from day care to early childhood education and care. The administration repeated its promise to the 2014 Folkeskole reform and assured strength for primary and lower secondary schools in this respect, but it also stated policies to put in place further actions to ensure the real achievement of the reform. Giving to the program, the government planned to review the procedure of inclusion in the Folkeskole and the relationship between schools and youth clubs. The program also set out policies to ensure that all pupils benefit from further learning opportunities across homework. Furthermore, fixed out its plans to run better chances for children with special needs by contribution pupils with learning difficulties the opportunity to take part in a crash course to be prepared for school, by giving children with special needs more freedom to select private primary and lower-secondary schools, and by consolidation relationship between schools and local associations. In upper secondary education, the program set out the goal of facilitating young people’s selections between general and vocational programs and of diminishing school dropout through greater consistency through upper secondary programs. (Re: OECD Reviews of School Resources Denmark)

Current educational priorities and concerns: Development of educational quality has been the key purpose of the reforms. The most significant methods to reach this goal has been to create the basics for local freedom of choice and the probabilities to make use of this choice. The supporting of the quality and significance of the programs through competence and content controls, establishment institutional running, establishing school management, and applying a more understandable, open and flexible educational structure. Through decentralization and improved local autonomy, the decision-making method is now generally left to the institutions in collaboration with the local community. The 1989 Act on the public school decentralized a numerous number of decisions to the new school managements where the parents are represented. The Act also providing the parents with a free choice of school within their local society.

The Act of January 1995, the new demands placed on teachers, the Minister of Education initiated a public discussion on the reform of teacher training. In March 2006, the reform of the pre-service teacher program for the primary and lower secondary school was approved, active from January 2007. The main objectives were: consolidation the partnership between educational institutions and working life, developing lifelong learning and continuing education, and increasing the use of ICT. Two of the purposes were that the proportion of young people taking a general or vocational education had to be higher from around 80% to 95%, and that the proportion of young people implementation a higher education degree had to be raised from 35% to 50%.

In 2007 the Government showed the National Policy for Lifelong Learning, which is mainly based on the Globalization Approach (“Progress, renewal and development: Strategy for Denmark in the global economy”) published in the spring of 2006. The general aim of the globalization policy is to make Denmark an important information society with strong effectiveness and strong organization. Education, lifelong skills upgrading, research and improvement at the highest international level are vital for reaching this aim. The national globalization policy comprises 350 specific creativities aiming at wide reforms of education and research programs and considerable improvements in the framework for development and innovation in all areas of the society.

The targets of the educational developments are that: all children will have a good start in school, all children will reach good academic knowledge and personal skills, 95% of all young people will complete a general or upper secondary education, 50% of all young people will complete a higher education program and everyone shall engage in lifelong learning.

(http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/archive/Countries/WDE/2006/WESTERN_EUROPE/Denmark/Denmark.htm)

Schooling in Austria:

Education is a vital part for the social and economic future of a country. The Federal Ministry for Education, the Arts and Culture has ability for the entire educational system of general and vocational schools, from compulsory schooling until end of secondary level 2 and for all University Colleges of Teacher Education (Pädagogische Hochschulen) in Austria. The Republic of Austria has a free and public school system. Nine years of education are compulsory. Schools provide a series of vocational-technical and university tracks that involve one to four additional years of education beyond the minimum compulsory level. The legal foundation for primary and secondary education in Austria is the School Act of 1962.

(Re: http://www.austria.org/education/)

Education structure in Austria is systematized in five stages: early childhood education and care (kindergarten), primary education, lower secondary education and upper secondary education, and tertiary education (the Austrian education system and Bruneforth et al.,).1 In Austria, Schooling is considered by early selective transitions, a large vocational sector containing more than half of the pupils at age 15, and a high degree of difference, especially at the level of upper secondary education (Bruneforth et al., forthcoming: 22). I will discuss a brief overview of the entire education system, but the remainder will focus on primary and lower secondary education only. A current OECD study considered post-secondary vocational education in Austria (Musset et al., 2013).

Kindergarten day care is not compulsory for children aged 3 to 5. From the age of 5, half-day kindergarten has been mandatory and offered free of charge since 2010 (Eurypedia, 2015). In the federal government’s November 2015 reform proposal, a second kindergarten year should become mandatory from the age of 4 onwards, but with a choice for parents to opt out (BMBF and BMWFW, 2015). In current years, participation in early childhood education and care has been increasing for children aged three and four, but remains below the OECD and EU21 average for three-year-olds, (OECD, 2015b). Compulsory education continues for 9 years, from age 6 to age 15, and starts with enrolment in a 4-year primary school (Volksschule, VS).

End of the primary school (at the age of 10) is followed by four years of lower secondary education. In this first selective change, pupils enter different types of lower secondary schools. In theory, the choice of track should depend solely on pupils’ academic capability and interests, but, in practice, students’ socio-economic setting plays an important part in this transition. Only 29% of the differences in school can be explained by differences in student success (Bruneforth, Weber and Bacher, 2012). 35% of primary school students moved to a lower academic secondary school in the school year 2013/14, 64% to a general secondary school, (Eurydice, 2015).

Upper secondary schooling covers Years 9 to 13 (typical ages 14 to 18) and contains a range of general and vocational school styles. Since mandatory education ends at the age of 15, typically one year later the finish of lower secondary education, students who did not repeat a year or enrol in pre-primary school are obliged to enter upper secondary schooling for at least one year. Through this second selective transition, pupils enter one of the following school types:

· Academic Secondary School, upper level

· Colleges for Higher Vocational Education

· Pre-vocational School

· Part-time Vocational School

· Secondary Technical and Vocational School

Austria has a relatively small private school zone. In 2012, only 7.5% age of 15 yeas joined government-dependent private schools (14.2% in OECD) and 1.1% joined independent private schools (4.1% in OECD), while the majority appeared public schools (91.4% against an OECD average of 81.7%) (OECD, 2014a, Table C7.2: 417). (Re: OECD Reviews of School Resources Austria)

Policies and Reforms:

The school education in Austria is characterized by a difficult delivery of responsibilities between the different levels of rule. The federal government’s bears the managerial specialist for all aspects pertaining to school education, including obligatory, technical and vocational, as well as higher-level secondary education. It grows and proposes regulation on education standards, curricula and teaching, comprising teachers’ remuneration, training and retirement as well as private schools and educational authorities. The nine provinces are responsible for the implementation of all federal school education through the making of implementing rule (Eurypedia, 2015).

The managerial responsibility for schools is officially divided between the nine regional school boards (Landesschulräte) and the school departments of the offices of the regional government (Schulabteilungen in den Ämtern der Landesregierung). However, the provincial school boards’ decision making bodies, the collegiate boards, are presided over by the regional manager and composed of members nominated by political parties in proportion to their share of seats in the regional government. The school departments of the offices of the regional government are accountable for administering regional schools. Additionally, most tasks associated with the provision and maintenance of regional schools, apart from teaching staff decisions, have in training been devolved to the local level, including the establishment of school buildings and infrastructure. (Eurypedia, 2015).

Austria’s 95 districts no longer have any managerial connection in the school system since a reform moved their duties to the regional level in 2013 (Bruneforth et al.,). These new boards should hold all powers presently held by the regional school boards and the school responsibilities of the offices of the regional administration, including the institute of the federal and the regional teachers, the external school organization, managerial staff and the school inspection (BMBF and BMWFW, 2015).

In Austria has a high solidity of schools and very little average school size. International Researchers indicates that per pupil spending is highest in the smallest schools (Falch et al., 2008; Larsen et al., 2013) and that significant economies of scale can be succeeded when rising school size up to a certain enrolment level. International research cannot deliver a “magic” number of optimal school size as school size moves a diverse fixed of outcomes for example pupil achievement and parental participation and the most suitable size will depend on appropriate features, including student arrangement (Humlum and Smith, 2015). However, if schools are so small that their capacity is underutilized, this has a negative impact on the efficiency of the school system (Ares Abalde, 2014). The small average school and class size in Austria is a vital part of the description for the fact that Austrian education is comparatively expensive for the quality that it delivers. It is also a significant driver of the inequality in per student funding between rural and urban areas.

In schooling, increasing average school size would free up means that could be invested in other significant areas that can have benefits in terms of equity for example early childhood education and care, the quality of teachers or the additional development of all-day schooling. When planning and applying policies it will be important to learn from the lessons of Austrian areas and other countries that have positively increased school size. Research illustrations that even if consolidation is generally met with opposition, consolidation can end up being positively valued by teachers, parents and students. “Studies have shown examples where nearly all students and teachers, both moving and receiving, reported experiencing benefits from consolidation and citizens from vacated communities also felt that consolidation had actually improved their community’s financial situation” (Nitta et al., 2010; Killeen and Sipple, 2000).

Currently, while municipalities knowledge the benefits of providing even very small schools within borders, they only feel part of the cost of keeping these schools open. In addition, the creation of bigger catchment in rural areas would be an essential step towards consolidation. The present system where the municipal area and the catchment area coincide means that when the last school closes in a catchment area, the concerned municipality needs to transfer funds to another municipality for each student.

Teacher education is also an issue that has made considerable argument. The strict separation of teacher education at universities and at university colleges of teacher education is being updated. Within the new system of teacher education, universities and university colleges of teacher education will collaborate closely.

However, most Austrian parents and legal guardians send their children to school, they are not compulsory to do so to meet their legal responsibilities. Under the Compulsory Education Act, national tuition is permitted, providing the education the children receive at home is obviously equal to the education offered in public schools. The same principle applies to education in isolated schools not controlled by public law. However, most private schools in Austria are structured by public law, and are thus treated as equivalent to public schools in terms of meeting compulsory education standards under the Obligatory Education Act. However, 92% in Austria’s school-age pupils attend national schools (Statistics Austria 2014c).

http://www.perfar.eu/policy/education/austria

To the School Organization Act of 25 July 1962, it will be the task of the Austrian school to promote the development of the talents and potential capabilities of young people in accordance with ethical, religious and social values and the growth of that which is true, good, and beautiful, by offering them an education consequent to their particular stages of development and their respective courses of study. It will provide young people the information and abilities required for their coming lives and works and train them to develop knowledge on their own creativity.

“Young people shall be trained to become healthy, capable, conscientious and responsible members of society and citizens of the democratic and federal Republic of Austria. They shall be encouraged to develop an independent judgment and social understanding, to be open-minded to the philosophy and political thinking of others, they shall be enabled to participate in the economic and cultural life of Austria, of Europe, and of the world, and to make their contribution, in love of freedom and peace, to the common tasks of mankind.”

(http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/archive/Countries/WDE/2006/WESTERN_EUROPE/Austria/Austria.htm)

Finally, and most importantly, it is key to link school consolidation to a strong quality agenda. When school consolidation is part of an agenda to improve quality and sound arguments are made why school enlargement is necessary as part of that agenda, the nature of the conversation changes. It is important to bring the school community, teachers, parents and local politicians on board in such a conversation. It is necessary to communicate a vision of quality education to persuade others of the need for change instead of on a narrow focus on cost savings. School consolidation must go in line with visible improvements in the quality of the students’ school in order to make consolidation attractive to parents and students. Re: OECD Reviews of School Resources Austria).

In Europe, the 1944 Education Act recognized the important of education in raising living standards and enhancing social mobility. Secondary to 15 was made compulsory, and free school meals and milk were presented with a range of other welfare facilities. Children were isolated at the age of eleven by capability and aptitude into grammar, technical and modern school. However, education was accepted by Labour and Conservative politicians as a major feature of the welfare sate. This issues that will be discussed include: the 1944 Education Act the different phases of education and ‘secondary education for all’.

Chapter 2: Strategy in Educational Management:

Regarding the fate of any attempt to make developments in education which are depends on the quality of pedagogical management and the presentation of those in leadership roles. The Head of the organization and its senior management team are considered as having an increasingly significant role to play in the educational management of that organization. Responding to the current need for effective management demands of these professionals that they pledge to broadening their abilities in order to devise new interventions and improvements in the pursuit of greater educational quality. Recently, in view of this absence of success, there has been something of a change in the way in which development is approached. The need for discussion between the educational institution and society is now starting to be acknowledged, taking into account the particular context for development within each institution and acknowledging that they need to act constitutionally, with involvement and collaboration from society. There is thus a move away from advance being tied to comprehensive institutional reform, and a move towards a relationship between development, the professional development of teaching staff, and the learning processes of students. According to Bolivar and Domingo (2007), any development that does not influence definitely on the quality of students’ learning can hardly be regarded to be a success. In this respect there is developing agreement, in globally, regarding one specific key factor in achieving sustainable improvement in education (Hargreaves & Fink, 2006), namely the strategic management of learning, together with effective educational management (Hargreaves & Goodson, 2006).

(http://ac.els-cdn.com/S1877042813014936/1-s2.0-S1877042813014936-main.pdf?_tid=9ddaf944-cdc5-11e6-8af2-00000aab0f6b&acdnat=1483016112_560fa514074fc8195fb689f16cc1f529)

Strategy, Planning and development of School Management:

Planning in schools over the last two decades has been considered in a number of ways. Wallace (1994) argues that some local education authorities (LEAs) produced agendas for planning based on cycles of review, prioritizing actions and implementation (Sheffield Education Department 1991; Warwickshire County Council 1991). At the level of school, MacGilchrist el al. (1995) argued that different types of school management strategies could be identified;

· the verbal which had no credibility within the school;

· the remarkable produced by the head alone;

· the co-operative constructed by a group of staff and concentrating on funding and staff development;

· the corporate produced by the whole staff working together and concentrating across a corresponded range of the school’s significances.

However, does not take into the account either the real nature of development in school management are determined by external factors. Once the importance of these external issues is taken into account it can be seen that such development has taken at least four different forms, each of which may be observed as strategic although each has a different meaning.

Before the Education Reform Act (DES 1988) planning, in fact, as it related to schools, was largely the field of local education authorities (LEAs). It consisted of staffing and management, sharing pupils to schools. Planning at this level had little direct impact on the curriculum or upon the processes of teaching. Indeed, apart from attempts by some LEAs to plan in order to cope with the decline in pupil numbers and brief flirtations with curriculum-led planning (Bell and Higham 1984), most schools were occasionally troubled by the need to consider events in the long or even the medium term in spite of the best efforts of the Schools Council and Nuffield Curriculum Development projects (Bell 1998).

While school development planning tends to be seen as a recent calculation to the range of management practices organized by heads and senior staff in schools its origins can be located to the early 1980s (Clegg and Billington 1997). The school heads and their staff to build a development strategy for their schools based on the evidence collected by staff working together to explore a number of key issues. There were also models of good professional training creating, for example, from the Schools Committee (Bolam et al. 1984) that explored ways in which schools could develop by reviewing, supervising and assessing their work over time. The Education Act 1987 (DES 1987) did place a responsibility upon heads to define the goals and objectives of the school and to inspector and review the achievement of those aims and objectives. The Education Reform Act (DES 1988) gave a further motivation to the deployment of strategic planning for school development. School improvement plans seemed to deliver a way of coping with this demand for responsibility. The determination of school development plans was to assist schools to introduce externally indomitable revolutions productively, so that the quality of teaching and standards of learning were develop (Hargreaves and Hopkins 1991). Plans were to consist of a statement about key areas for development set in the context of the school’s goals and principles, its existing achievements and LEA and national initiatives, policies and priorities.

School development plans became one of the key points of the new national review framework. Inspectors from the Office for Standards in Education were compulsory to make a finding about the management of the schools through the quality of the school development plan (1992). Largely as a result of their combination into the assessment process, development plans became the vehicle by which schools quantified those developments in teaching and learning that were to be brought about. Their main function, remained to provide a mechanism through which both parents and the Office for Standards in Education supervisors could hold staff in schools responsible for setting and achieving those priorities (Bell and Rhodes 1996).

(http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.196.2086&rep=rep1&type=pdf)

Strategy at Schooling Management in Selected Three EU Countries:

As valuing European diversity and the unique opportunities which this affords, and while fully respecting the Member States’ accountability for their education systems, an updated strategic framework for European collaboration in education and training. Education and training have made a considerable contribution towards getting the long-term goals of the Lisbon strategy for growing and careers. In expectation of future developments with this process, efforts should therefore be maintained to confirm that education and training remain confidently attached in the broader strategy. It is also important that the structure for European cooperation should continue flexible to respond to both current and future challenges, including those rising under any new strategy after 2010, In the period up to 2020, the crucial goal of European cooperation should be to support the further development of education and training systems in the Member States which are targeted at ensuring:

· the personal, social and professional fulfilment of all citizens,

· sustainable economic success and employability, whilst promoting democratic values, social unity, active citizenship, and intercultural discussion.

Member States recognize the significance to openness of the world at large as a essential for the global development and prosperity will help the European Union achieve its objective of becoming a world-leading acquaintance economy. European cooperation in education and training for the period up to 2020 should be founded in the context of a strategic agenda covering education and training systems as a whole in a lifelong learning perspective. Indeed, lifelong learning should be considered as a fundamental principle behind the entire framework, which is planned to cover learning in all contexts from early childhood education and schools through to higher education, vocational education and training and adult learning.

Specifically, the foundation should address the following four strategic aims:

1. Making lifelong learning and mobility a reality

2. Educating the quality and efficiency of education and training

3. Developing equity, social solidity and active citizenship

4. Improving creativity and innovation, involving entrepreneurship, at all levels of education and training

High quality schooling and training systems which are both effective and equitable are essential for Europe's success. The major challenge is to ensure the achievement of key competences by everyone, while developing the quality and attractiveness at all levels of education and training that will allow Europe to retain a strong universal role. To achieve this on a sustainable basis, greater consideration needs to be paid to educating the level of basic skills such as literacy and proficiency, making mathematics, science and technology. It is also significant to improve the governance and leadership of education and training organizations, and to develop effective quality assurance systems.

http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ:C:2009:119:FULL&from=EN

In European countries have implemented different methods to guide and support the development of the key competences approach. A number of countries or regions have launched national strategies to improve teaching and learning. Moreover, Cross-curricular capabilities such as in ICT, entrepreneurship and civics are broadly integrated into the curriculum at primary and secondary levels. In one third of European nations, the focus on entrepreneurship education does not start until secondary level. European countries tend to organization several approaches to delivering transversal abilities: they can be taught as a stand-alone subject, as part of a baggier learning area and they can also be delivered across the whole curriculum where all teachers share duty for delivery. For instance, several recent international studies declare to a low level of integration with respect to digital abilities in the teaching of mathematics, science and languages, even in countries where computer accessibility is high. The explaining of the learning outcomes connected with each relevant learning area is considered to be specifically significant.

Evaluation can play a significant role in developing the quality and relevance of the skills that are learned at school in European countries. A number of national proposals have been designed to develop evaluation methods which can capture the difficulty of the whole range of key abilities and can measure students’ ability to apply their knowledge in context. A further focus on better integrating the transversal competences in all types of assessment would provide to strengthening the consistency of the learning process and highlight the equal significance attributed to all key abilities.

(http://www.teachers4europe.gr/files/EC3112120ENC_002.pdf)

Sweden:

In such education systems are those that combine high quality with equity, the vast majority of pupils can attain high-level abilities and knowledge that depend more on their skill and drive than on their background (OECD, 2012a). For Swedish education performance to growth and reach that of high-performing procedures, it is important to focusing on quality of education while continuing to provide equity. There are currently a number of factors that hamper progress to better pupil engagement and motivation for higher performance and some basic practices that prevent development for schools. In recent years, Sweden’s pupil performance has declined in all key areas of literacy, numeracy and science, from above or around the OECD average to the OECD average. Sweden is committed to ensuring that all students have a quality education. Education is a priority for Sweden, with 6.8% of its GDP devoted to public expenditure on education (compared to the OECD average of 5.6%). It has the highest proportion of public funding in education (97%) among OECD countries.

Decentralized and based on principles of autonomy is a Sweden education system. Public funding is allocated to schools mostly through public grants to municipal and independent schools. Special national funding is targeted to selected national imports, often needy pupils or those with a migrant background. Overall, the quantity spent on education is above the OECD average, as is expenditure per pupil. But funding methods do not appear to reach the more lacking or those that may need it most, and funding strategies are unclear across municipalities. The school funding to ensure quality learning prospects for all students. Review current funding technique to ensure that they are essentially targeted to develop and respond to equity and quality objectives in education. Provide more support to local authorities to enhance their capacity to design and deliver programs that target equity. Build capacity for teaching and learning through a long-term human resource strategy, create a publicly-funded National Institute for Teacher and School Leader Quality. The School should bring together members of the research community, legislatures of the expert community, and representatives of institute to develop a human resource strategy focused on recruitment of ability and professional development for teachers and school leaders. Here is the detail about strategies of Schooling.

http://www.oecd.org/edu/school/Improving-Schools-in-Sweden.pdf

The decision-making process: Since Government increased the ability to take a stand on the basic principles of educational goals and guidelines, these have been issued by Administration. Program curriculum for individual subjects and subject areas state goals that apply to the whole country. The curricula are design by the National Agency for Education in accordance with administrative directives. To support work being done in the school, the Agency issues special essays explaining the determination and motives of national goals and gives examples of how they can be concretized. These observations are not meant to be prescriptive but are based on scientifically validated knowledge and proven capability.

Curriculum planning and design, one of the fundamental ideas in the organizing of school curriculum is that every type of school consolidates and develops what pupils have already learned. But in considering the successive making of knowledge through a child’s education, adjustment is also made to the conditions characteristic of different types of schools and their purposes. The reform of the 1990s shifted the accountability of a number of issues usually associated with curriculum, to the school. Every school must now determine how to organize actions in order to fulfil their goals. How the teaching itself is carried out and what materials, work forms and systems are used, is decided by the teacher and the pupils.

Teaching and learning strategies, the task of Swedish education is twin to pass on a heritage of cultural values, traditions, language and knowledge from one generation to the next, and to prepare pupils to live and function in society. School plays a significant part in teaching children how to process and sort large amounts of knowledge. It has become gradually important to know how and where to develop information, as well as how to take, procedure and evaluate it. A fundamental part of this is developing a rich and communicative language, problem-solving, analysis and reflection, model-aided thinking, looking at things from different perspectives, interpreting symbols, formulating and arguing a standpoint, evaluating, and the ability to form and express ideas, feelings and moods, etc., are of the growing consequence. The curriculum also expresses the importance of taking a whole approach to the learning-, as well as social and emotional, improvement of children and youths. Swedish schools highlight the significance of children learning how to learn, and taking liability for their own learning. Relationship between teachers occurs more and more in the form of effort teams.

Assessment strategies and mechanisms, in the Swedish education system, grades are used starting in year 8 of compulsory school. To aid teachers in assessing student knowledge and setting grades, there are national exams. National exams are based on approved course curriculum. For the lower years, there are diagnostic tests.

http://www.ibe.unesco.org/International/ICE/natrap/Sweden.pdf

Development & Implement: Sweden Education institute should develop and implement a widespread national school improvement strategy to bring about system wide change that inspires the activity of agreed goals, boosts expectations and learner ambitions, launches clear roles and responsibilities, and develop teacher and school leader quality. Assessment should be constructive, essential to improvement, and promote better cooperation and networking. Knowledge of different approaches to school improvement suggests that an effective strategy should have a governance organization that can provide strategic oversight of implementation, is inclusive, has trustworthy evaluation and feedback mechanisms and allows clear and timely decision-making. The strategy should relate directly to agreed national priorities and objectives, and should establish connections and synergies to underpin effective implementation through to schools and classrooms. It should be based on clear agreement on the characteristics of a good school, good teaching and effective leadership.

Two-way communication along the decision-making chain will be needed to protected active participation of the teaching profession and other key investors. Clarity about necessary needs will be necessary, specifically on developing capability, including appropriate initial teacher education and continuing professional improvement. Responsibility technique should be productive and intelligent, placing accountability for improvement with those who take the key decisions and should avoid narrow observance that can inspires gaming and stifle local creativity and innovation. A crucial issue for improvement and a key element of the strategy lies in the need to develop capacity of teachers and school leaders, based on the work developed by the proposed National Institute for Teacher and School leadership. The improvement of clear criteria would provide the kind of common understanding of quality that is a crucial component of a improvement strategy.

The strategy should be very clear about the ways in which capability will be built, by aiming support to schools and inspiring corporations between metropolises and private organizers, as well as among schools, to allow for shared support and development. A much more cooperative culture would inspire in-school, between school and beyond-school partnerships nearby the priorities. Competition among schools for students means that motivations will be required to encourage such partnership. The strategy should combine and develop on different works presently available to support schools, and governments of private organizers, with input from the Schools monitored.

Assessment and evaluation should emphasize strengths and areas for development at all levels of the system. That will lead to greater chances to encourage exchange of information and positive teamwork and to identify and disseminate good training, which can be used to build capability. A key thread running through the proposed method to school improvement evaluation and responsibility is the need to move from an approach based principally on compliance to one that uses accountability to focus improvement efforts on education priorities. The tests of improvement lie in raising the quality of the educational experience of young people in Sweden and raising performance standards. Evaluation and development should not be seen as separate entities, but as combined components in an overall assessment and evaluation strategy. Therefore, together with the earlier suggestions of the 2011 OECD report on evaluation and assessment in Sweden, the suggestions in this review should be consolidated and incorporated into a complete assessment and evaluation framework.

http://www.oecd.org/edu/school/Improving-Schools-in-Sweden.pdf

Denmark:

Education strategy is decentralized and delivered by municipalities. The Ministry of Education launches aims and content, and 98 metropolises manage overall quality of their schools, setting local objectives and conditions and supervising them. The high level of school autonomy means that effectiveness of education strategy depends on the capacity of local governments, school leaders and teachers to implement national strategies at the school level. Denmark has 146 upper secondary education institutions that offer one or more of the four programs available and 117 institutions that offer VET programs. There is much parental engagement, as schools are run by a board of governors of elected parents, teachers and student representatives. School boards implement education strategies within the central and municipal framework. Private schools are normally managed by parent-elected boards that have more responsibility to supervise school quality than boards in public schools. Post-compulsory schools have autonomy to develop educational opportunities and pedagogy. They are self-governing, although they operate under rules established by the Ministry of Education. Upper secondary schools, social and health programs and adult education centers are funded by the state. School boards in self-governing institutions are responsible for administrative and financial management. At the lower secondary level, 44% of decisions are made by the school, while 34% are made by the local government and 22% are made by the central or state government.

https://www.oecd.org/edu/EDUCATION%20POLICY%20OUTLOOK%20DENMARK_EN.pdf

Recent strategies and practices: A recruitment campaign was initiated by the Ministry of Education in 2010 to attract more of the best students to the teaching profession. A new improvement being introduced in Denmark aims to develop the quality of the school, modifying aspects of compulsory education, such as the school day and the curriculum, providing additional support to schools and raising the stakes for school leaving examinations before post-compulsory education (Spotlight 2). A major improvement of teacher education in Denmark (2012) has as its guiding ideologies deregulation, internationalization and a strong relationship between teacher training and the essentials of the Danish school system. Starting in 2013, the Bachelor of Education program will be guided by competency objectives for each teaching practice, teacher education will be constructed around modules, and the University Colleges will be granted more autonomy in setting program structures and determining the content of modules for development of different teacher profiles. To become primary and lower secondary teachers in Denmark, candidates must complete a bachelor’s degree in education and a teaching practicum. Upper secondary teachers must hold a master's degree in a specific subject area and then complete a one-year in-service teacher-training course. Teachers’ salaries in Denmark are among the highest in OECD countries at all education levels, although salary scales appear relatively flat when compared to the OECD average. Teachers work increasingly in teams and benefit from the support of special advisors.

National priorities for education: In November 2011, the recently appointed Prime Minister released the government platform entitled a Denmark that stands together. Part of the platform focuses on improving education outcomes by ensuring better early childhood education and care, improving primary and lower secondary school in co-operation with teachers and parents, increasing education enrolment and completion rates, and reducing the dropout rate. The objectives include:

· to increase the number of young people completing a vocational education and training program

· to development education and training to increase growth and the labour supply

· to launch an economic program that includes funding for improvements in education

· to invest in research. Specific targets include:

· 95% of a cohort should achieve an upper secondary education by 2020

Improvement: Strategic to raising achievement in schools is developing learning environments with the conditions for school leaders and teachers to succeed. School environments in Denmark are considered positive from various perspectives. For example, student-teacher relations are especially positive according to both students and principals (Figure 5). The number of days of instruction in general programs at primary, lower and upper secondary level of education is among the highest in OECD countries and is combined with an above-average number of annual instruction hours for students in primary and lower secondary. The role of school leaders has changed over the past decade, with more school autonomy and high demands for accountability. Nevertheless, according to self-reports in the 2008 OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS), lower secondary school principals in Denmark often lack a clear leadership style. They are less likely than principals in other countries to use an administrative style of leadership, but are also less likely to use an instructional style of leadership. Results from the PISA 2012 survey also show that school leaders are less involved in instructional leadership activities than the average school leader in OECD countries. To foster student learning, increased autonomy levels need to be supported by capacity-building for better instructional and administrative leadership.

They are usually keen to receive response for their professional development, but in fact they receive less response than teachers in many other countries and there does not seem to be a shared understanding of what counts as quality in teaching. Moreover, Danish teachers contribute less in professional development actions, which are generally decided at the school level (75.6%, compared to the TALIS average of 88.5%), and they spend fewer days on professional development than the TALIS average (9.8 days compared to the TALIS average of 15.3 days). With a new improvement aiming to extend school days in Denmark, it will be significant to ensure adequate support to schools to help teachers succeed in their additional accountabilities.

https://www.oecd.org/edu/EDUCATION%20POLICY%20OUTLOOK%20DENMARK_EN.pdf

In May 2004 the OECD published a major evaluative report on the Danish Folkeskole. The report points out the following weaknesses, listed here with no attempt to disguise them: widespread underachievement, lack of a strong culture of assessment, inadequate sharing of good experiences between schools, insufficient efforts to help children with minor learning disabilities, insufficient efforts to cope with the needs of children with a disadvantaged social background, ambivalent attitudes towards school leadership and management, insufficient teacher training and in-service training; inflexible contracts for teachers’ working hours; and schools’ secondary tasks like prevention, upbringing etc. getting in the way of their primary role of education.

The assessment also points out several essential aspects: the school should be functioning in a equal tradition, the school should be decentralized and leaning concerning development and improvement, considerable resources should have been distributed over a long period, staff, buildings and equipment should be suitable, parents should have a wide range of choice, enthusiastic teachers and pedagogues, confident and joyful learners, readiness to participate multilingual children, and the will to develop.

The OECD has put onward a list of 35 concrete references for development. The main thrust is in the focus of more frequent testing and assessment of the pupils. However, this is a very sensitive political issue in Denmark. The positive reception of the OECD report may be seen as reliable with the willingness to take on board the results of several global relationships in recent years.

http://www.ibe.unesco.org/National_Reports/ICE_2004/denmark.pdf

Austria:

In Austria’s early school leaving rate is below the EU average that is the main strengths and challenges. Vocational education and training system is well reformed to the labor market, a factor that has contributed to it youth unemployment rates in the EU having one of the lowest. Nonetheless, foreign-born students are three times as possible to leave school early as native-born students, and learning performance continues to be very dependent on parents’ socio-economic status. In 2013, participating in education and training and overall government expenditure on education as a proportion of GDP has remained stable over 2011-13 at 5.0%, slightly above the EU average of 4.8%.1 Spending on education as a percentage of overall management expenditure also remained broadly unaffected, at around 9.7- 9.8% between 2010 and 2013. Austria have a plans to keep expenditure on education at 4.7% of GDP at least until 2030, with no increase expected before this date, (Federal Ministry of Finance 2015). The government also plans to develop the country’s complex funding system and make it more effective. A high level reform commission set up to address this issue is expected to present its results by 17 November 2015.

While average educational outcomes have improved, young people from low socioeconomic groups and with a migrant background continue to perform significantly worse in school than other students. The early school leaving rate remains well below the EU average (7.0% compared to 11.1% in 2014) and below the Europe 2020 national target of 9.5%. The rate has been dropping continuously over latest years, from 10% in 2006. The early school leaving rate remains lower for girls (6.5%) than boys (7.6%). The early school leaving rate with foreign-born students has also developed, declining by almost half from 27.8% in 2007 to 14.9% in 2014, and is also below the EU average (20.1%). The contribution of children aged four and above in early childhood education and care (ECEC) has grown-up continuously, from 86% in 2001 to 93.9% in 2013.

Modernizing school education: in the 2013/14 school year, Austria devoted the third most hours a week in primary education to reading, writing and literature (29.8 hours), behind only France and Hungary. It positions ninth, however, for the teaching time allocated to mathematics (17.0 hours compared to 27.0 hours in Denmark). An average of 12.8 hours is devoted to natural sciences, the second lengthiest among EU countries, after Dutch-speaking Belgium where 17.6 hours a week are spent on this subject.

Austria has introduced a new system for teacher training that standardizes educational requirements and reorganizes and standardizes the teacher training programs offered. New curricula have been developed for teacher training for all levels of education, and training programs for upper secondary teachers will now benefit from greater cooperation between teacher training providers and universities. The new training systems started in 2015/16 for primary school teachers and will in 2016/17 for secondary school teachers.5

Austrian teachers are burdened with a significant amount of administrative work6 and are not receiving sufficient ongoing training. Almost half of all teachers feel that they need better professional training, especially to be able to manage students with disciplinary and behavioral problems and those with special learning needs more effectively. The other main areas where teachers in Austria express a wish for more training are ICT teaching skills and pedagogy. The OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) found that Austrian teachers are given relatively little continuing education and training and also benefit from less support in the form of induction and mentoring than teachers in many other countries. On average, teachers had received 10.5 days of training during the last 18 months (OECD 2014b).

In addition, more advice is now being given to students to help them choose the appropriate type of education and training (Federal Chancellery 2015, p.12) and a pilot program for extending compulsory education until the age of 18 (Ausbildung bis 18) has been launched. 2 Some of the processes announced in the government program are yet to be implemented, such as the national quality framework for ECEC,3 and the overview of an additional compulsory year in ECEC. Teacher training of ECEC teachers has not yet been debated within the reform of the teaching profession. A new approach to managing the transitional phase among early childhood education and primary school is presently being tested (Box 2 for details). The number of places offered in all-day schools has also continued to rise, and the government announced that a total of EUR 800 million will be invested over the period to 2018/19 in growing the number of all-day school places and in measures to improve the quality of afternoon provision in all-day schools.

http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/education_culture/repository/education/tools/docs/2015/monitor2015-austria_en.pdf

Decision maker at school: Education has always been a very sensitive area, seriously disputed among governmental decision-makers in Austria. This explains the casuistic distribution of duties between different bodies and entities. The current legal framework therefore renders attempts at amending education rules very difficult. The Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Culture has overall responsibility for primary and secondary education, with general education and vocational schools. As is the case with administration in broad, tasks for strategy and implementation in school education are allocated between the Federation.

https://www.oecd.org/austria/38570494.pdf

With the increasing right of co-determination of citizens in their daily lives parents, teachers and pupils have also felt the need and necessity to co-determine the organization of ‘their’ school. This improvement has been supported by the growth of de-centralization and self-government in the business world and private sphere in many social and cultural fields. This rise of autonomy sets much higher claims on the school committees of co-determination than before since it signifies not only the awareness of more scope of action but also, at the same time, of autonomy, self-obligation and self-control.

The starting point for registering a school concept resides in the environments in each individual school. The essential for the implementation of self-government, to provide more scope of action, can be seen in the dissatisfaction with the present condition of a school. As a feedback the of members staffs, together with the parents and possibly learners, could analyze the surviving problems and formulate their needs regarding developments. Subsequently, a team involving first also of parents and learners could improve regulations autonomous for the school concerning time-tables, contents of lessons, teaching and learning approaches and the organization of learning. The school board only intervene if the curricula regulations disregard the interest of the pupils, parents and custodians beyond the individual school. The newly-compiled curricula should be posted in the school for the length of one month and then be deposited with the school management. Parents and pupils have the right of examination. This regular assessment of set measures should lead to a process of permanent self-renovation, which should replace the ‘old’ systems.

http://www.schoolboard-scotland.com/conference/Austria.htm

Large scale assessments, and particularly PISA, have contributed to concerns about how to establish quality awareness in schools. Already, as early as 1999, a national framework for quality assurance, was introduced to assure good teaching and learning quality. With the framework the Austrian Ministry of Education intends to encourage and to support schools to review, monitor, and develop their own quality. Teachers, students, and parents who occupy themselves jointly and systematically with quality issues are an indispensable part of school culture. Autonomous quality assurance and quality development of schools is the precondition and starting point for a future-oriented school system of high quality.

Observing students’ disciplinary behavior, learning development and outcomes. Since the Austrian school system does not posses a national method for quality assurance yet, the monitoring and control takes place more informally, depending on the structure of the system and the individuals involved. This happens at the interfaces of the school types, because in a stratified school system the pupils’ successes decide on their future paths throughout the school system combined with qualification decisions. This happens for the first time after four years of primary schools, where pupils can move on either to general secondary schools or to academic secondary schools, when the grade average decides on the choice of school. Because of the limitations of places in academic secondary education the school authorities have a good overview of the pupils’ achievement as far as grades are concerned. Through the introduction of educational standards, the monitoring of students’ learning progress and outcomes will be measurable more systematically, since the test results in the main subject areas will be available for different schools or regions.

Disciplinary behavior is usually only observed on the class or school levels. A so-called early warning system was introduced by the Ministry of Education as a governing device which asks teachers to contact parents immediately if they notice a decline in a pupils’ achievement or behavior and to arrange a meeting to jointly find a solution to the respective problem(s) with a view to improvement.

https://www.oecd.org/austria/38570494.pdf

Chapter: 3. Organization in Educational Institutions:

Organization with a Focus on school

A school can go a long way toward developing student learning. At all instructional levels, the school organizational design can materially assume the manner in which students and teachers cooperate. All of these school wide structures should be aimed to maximize teacher and student flexibility, inspire in-depth teaching and learning, and participate as many different resources as possible. School refers to how schools organize the resources of time, space, and personnel for highest effect on student learning. The school organizational plan reports those issues that affect the school as a whole, such as the master agenda, the location of staff in different rooms, and the task of aides to teachers or teams. Nor are teams established only so that members of the ability who are friends can work together. All activities must reflect an unwavering focus on student learning.

Reference: http://www.ascd.org/publications/books/102109/chapters/School-Organization.aspx

A school as a learning organization has a shared vision that gives it a sense of direction and serves as a encouraging force for constant action to succeed individual and school goals. Taking a shared vision is more an outcome of a process than it is a starting point that involves all staff, students, parents and other. One of the largest challenges facing societies today is participating those on the margins of society whose learning problems undermine their confidence. Education participants need to believe that a school’s vision and goals include a moral purpose. Having a motivating and inspiring vision statement that is committed to improving the lives of all students is vitally significant.

Many schools and education procedures around the globe have achieved their vision to dramatically develop the learning outcomes of the most disadvantaged children. The evidence shows that excellence and equity in education are not mutually exclusive objectives. Thus, any vision to change a school into a learning organization should involve two things: a front and center commitment to making a difference in the learning and lives of all students, especially disadvantaged students, and a emphasis on learning and teaching that effects a broad range of outcomes both cognitive and social/emotional for today and the future.

The kind of education needed today teachers who always advance their own professional knowledge and that of their work. A growing body of evidence shows that teachers’ professional development can have a constructive impact on student functioning and teachers’ practice. A school as a learning organization has a supportive culture, and invests time and other resources in quality professional learning opportunities for all staff, teachers, school leaders and support staff, starting with their induction into the profession. “It is clearer today than ever that educators need to learn, and that’s why professional learning has replaced professional development. Developing is not enough. Educators must be knowledgeable and wise. They must know enough in order to change. They must change in order to get different results. They must become learners …” (Easton, 2008). In a school as a learning organization, staff are fully involved in recognizing the aims and main concern for their own professional learning in line with school goals and pupil learning needs, as described in the school’s development plan.

Schools as learning groups develop processes, approaches and systems that allow the schools to learn and react successfully in uncertain and active environments. They institutionalize learning technique in order to revise existing knowledge. Without such mechanisms, a learning organization cannot succeed. Effective use of data by teachers, school leaders and support staff has become central to school development processes. Major developments can be achieved when schools and school systems rise their cooperative capacity to involve in continuing duty for learning, and frequently evaluate and amend and update their theories of action about how their involvements are intended to work. In schools as learning organizations, staff are encouraged to participate in decision making. Distributed leadership develops, increases and is sustained through cooperation, team work, and sharing in professional learning societies and networks. While committed school leaders are key to the success of schools as learning organizations, the support of policy makers, managers and other system leaders is fundamental.

3.2. Organizational Culture in European School:

School culture may be described as its system of attitudes, values, norms, beliefs, daily practices, principles, rules, teaching techniques and organizational actions. This culture circumstances the behavior of the entire school community, with pupils, teachers, non-teaching staff and parents. Education is meant to make young people for an active and constructive contribution to build a society, it should not only take theoretical knowledge, but also the abilities, practice essential for being an active and accountable citizen. Education has much to do with how all members of the school society, with teachers, pupils, parents and other local players cooperate daily, as well as with school hierarchies and approaches of contribution. However, schools culture nowadays tries to inspire active participation on the part of pupils in the life of the local society at large. Schools may be explained as the microcosm in which active social responsibility is learnt and practiced. Although, this can only occur if school heads, teachers and other staff give pupils the opportunity to involve with the concept daily. It also has a behavior on how schools relate with their local or wider society and solve problems or implement improvements and new ideas.

· It is important to emphasize that the culture of a school is an organic element, arising, first and foremost, from the actual practices which are carried on in that school on a daily, weekly and yearly basis.

· In the United Kingdom (England), a special Advisory Group drew attention in its 1998 report, Education for Citizenship and the Teaching of Democracy in Schools, to the significant involvement that the philosophy of the school can make to social responsibility education: There is increasing recognition that the attitude, organization, structures and daily performs of schools, including whole-school actions and assemblies have an important impact on the success of nationality education.

In their educational regulation or other official documents, most European countries focus the significance of promoting an involved school culture that inspires young people to become active and responsible citizens. Fundamentally, the idea is that this culture should be created by democratic values, with respect for others, patience, mutual trust, unity, and collaboration. As far as democratic and participatory school culture is concerned, the new EU Member States in central and eastern Europe find themselves in a rather special condition. Since the fall of collectivism, school administration and organization have changed deeply. The whole education system has had to be efficient, while pupils have had to be incorporated into school decision-making more directly and democratically. However, the largest challenge has been the unexpected obligation on teachers to learn and teach community values and then apply them in exercise to create a democratic educational environment.

Pupil Participation: at school level, active social responsibility can be developed among pupils by inspiring them to take part in the work of established bodies. In all European countries, there is lawmaking counseling that schools should motivate pupils to represent their interests in an arranged fashion and become involved in decision-making school management. In addition, contribution may be limited to certain levels of education for example in some countries to pupils who are in lower or upper secondary education.

Parental Involvement: Parents are instrumental in helping children to learn and become good residents. It is therefore significant that there should be strong relation between parents and schools. Both share duty for transmitting proper public behavior and values to the young. And parents should be effective in school life both as role models for their children and in order to develop and merge their own community skills. Moreover, parents may actively contribute to the work of school governing groups, which usually bring together representatives of teachers, pupils and parents. The parents participate are normally either elected by the members of the school parent council or by all parents with children at the school. In some countries, representatives of non-teaching staff and the local society may also take part in the conferences of school councils. School governing groups provide an official forum for parents to express their views and exercise effect through their elected governments. (see Figure 3.2).

School Participation in Society One of the most important ways of learning more about responsible residency is by taking an active part in society. In almost all European countries, schools try to include their pupils in the activities of society. Schools and civil society can link up in two differing ways: either representatives of the general public may be drawn into school activities or, alternatively, pupils may go beyond the confines of their school to involvement aspects of life in society. In society, many different complements exist with whom schools can team up to teach pupils behavior characteristic of responsible citizenship. School contribution may involve a variety of activities, ranging from knowledge initiatives through which learners gain an awareness into social developments, to their real participation in the everyday life of the local community. Such activities include the following:

· partnerships and pupil exchanges with schools from other countries, including pen pal correspondence;

· open (school) days or fetes at which the local community is invited to visit schools to find out how they function and meet pupils;

· Citizenship Education at School in Europe 36 fund-raising to support charity or solidarity projects, especially for the benefit of children who live in developing countries or are victims of natural disasters;

· voluntary work, including help in old people’s homes, or with cleaning playgrounds or the local forest;

· short-term work placements for pupils in secondary education to introduce them to working life and give them the opportunity to meet prospective employers.

Schools in many European countries also celebrate special event days on which pupils are given the opportunity to leave school and make some form of involvement to the society.

In conclusion, it has become clear that one of the most significant effort of education is to make pupils for their future role as active citizens who contribute to social well-being. The most successful way of doing this is to give them an opportunity to knowledge directly what responsible civic action means, by bridging the gap between school as a miniature pattern for society on the one hand, and society in the real world beyond it on the other. Thus while young people should be given opportunities to become involved in the daily working of the local community, it is no less essential for them to have expected prior responsibilities within the structure and society of their school.

(http://www.indire.it/lucabas/lkmw_file/eurydice/Citizenship_schools_Europe_2005_EN.pdf citizenship Education at School in Europe)

Organizational Structure and Development in Three Selected European school:

The education systems of EU-related curricula content at all levels of education, including vocational education and training in close collaboration with all relevant actors at EU and national level, while strongly encouraging regions and local authorities to do the same, in particular when they have direct competences in educational systems. Encourages the Member States to support all possibilities of conveying more information about the EU to learners as well as to teachers and other educators through formal, non-formal and informal learning, and to fully exploit and complement EU financial instruments, programs and initiatives in this regard. To increase investment in quality education, also by means of greater partnership with the private sector, and to promote equal opportunities for all, and to provide all educational and training institutions, as well as teachers and other educators, with the support necessary to empower them to introduce and continuously develop an EU in education from an early age that goes beyond the class room. Here is the detail in three countries about structure and development at schooling.

Structure and Development at schooling in Sweden:

With its emphasis on self-governing studies, Sweden is ranked among the world best leaders in education. This means that pupils have rather less teacher-led time than is usual elsewhere, essentially taking up their studies in groups or on their own. The Swedish education system includes several different schooling and education, designed for pupils of different age groups and with differing capabilities and needs. In Sweden, attending school is compulsory for all children aged 7-16. The age when children may begin school is flexible: a child can start going to school at the age of 6, 7 or 8 years. Compulsory school is free of cost. The same standard of education is to be provided throughout the country and is to provide a platform for further studies. The structure of education in Sweden comprises Pre-School, Primary and Lower Secondary School, Upper-Secondary Education, Vocational & Education Training, and Higher Education.

Pre-school education: Pre-primary education takes several forms: day-care centers for children aged 1-6; part-time groups, which cater to children aged 4-6; and open pre-school targeted at pre-school children without any other kind of pre-school place. As of 1998 the pre-school class has been introduced as an obligation for all municipalities to provide for all 6-year-olds. Attending is voluntary.

Primary and lower secondary education: All children aged 7-16 appear a nine-year obligatory school. The new curriculum offers considerably greater flexibility than earlier curricula with respect to how resources may be used. It does not require the grade level at which the subjects must be covered, and it also allows some room for school-determined and pupil selections.

Secondary education: Upper secondary education is co-educational and providing free of charge in the upper secondary school. Since 1995/96, the new, complete upper secondary structure is organized in seventeen programs lasting three years. The school year is separated into two terms and comprises 40 weeks with not less than 178 school days (Monday-Friday) and twelve days of holiday. The autumn term lengthens from the end of August to the end of December; the spring term from the opening of January to the beginning of June. The exact dates vary from year to year and from one city to another. Presence is compulsory for a maximum of 190 days per year and eight hours per day. Under certain conditions, however, pupils could be excused from otherwise required teaching.

Source: UNESCO

Development: To respond to these challenges, Sweden should implement a comprehensive education improvement to bring about system-wide change and strengthen the implementation of all Swedish schools and pupils. It needs to express priorities, establish clear education accountabilities across the system and consistently provide proper support and task to schools, municipalities and private organizers in their development works. A number of concrete solid recommendations are planned as the foundation for this national established school-reform effort:

Establish conditions that promote quality with equity across Swedish schools: Set high outlooks for all pupils, building on the existing curriculum. Swedish schools can respond better to decreasing learner engagement and functioning by setting clear and high opportunities for all students, building on current program goals with a focus on developing core abilities and improving skills for the 21st century. They should ensure a better disciplinary environment and teaching and learning approaches that respond to varied pupil learning needs, including low and high performers. Defensive approaches should also be improved to ensure that all students establish fundamental skills from early stages forwards.

Consolidate support to disadvantaged groups: Sweden should conventional support for integration of migrant students more consistently across the country. Current efforts are depending on the capability of municipalities to take on further resources or projects from the National Agency for Education or other independent methods. A rational strategy to better integrate migrants in schools and Swedish society can build on recent efforts, which include language learning, targeted resources, parental language training, and specific training and support for teachers and school leaders.

Review school funding to ensure quality learning opportunities for all students: Analysis of recent funding mechanisms to confirm that they are effectively targeted to education and counter to equity and quality objectives, and ensure that funding strategies are assessed and followed up for efficiency. Provide more support to local authorities to improve their capacity to design and bring programs that target equity.

Revise school-choice arrangements to ensure quality with equity: Improve the access of disadvantaged families to communication about schools and support them in making informed selections. In addition, introduce skillful choice structures that supplement parental choice to ensure a more diverse distribution of learners in schools. To encourage a culture of cooperation and peer learning, consider defining national strategies to ensure that municipalities participate independent schools in their planning, development and support strategies.

Build capacity for teaching and learning through a long-term human resource strategy: Create a publicly funded National Institute for Teacher and School Leader Quality. The school should bring together members of the research community, governments of the consultant community, and councils of major governance organizations to improve a human resource strategy highlight on recruitment of talent and professional growth for teachers and school leaders. Review the number and quality of existing providers of teacher education. The review should examine ability, focus, and resources in existing teacher education programs in Sweden, to building an overall human resource strategy for the sector. Improve attractiveness of the teaching and school leadership profession. As part of a larger effort to create a well-designed career structure that acknowledges and challenges educators throughout their careers, this includes increasing salaries, developing professional standards to emphasize appraisals and career structure and adequately resourced continuous professional development for educators to support school improvement efforts.

Strengthen steering of policy and accountability with a focus on improvement: Together with key stakeholders, define a set of ambitious education priorities. A multi-stakeholder Education Plan Meeting should be established to advise on setting main concern for the system, based on a forward-looking outlook of Sweden’s economic and social progress. These priorities should be pursued consistently at all levels, supported by mechanisms for building proprietorship through early meeting. Objectives should build on the expectations set for students to ensure quality and equity.

Develop an inclusive national school development strategy. To bring about system-wide change, the strategy should inspire pursuit of agreed objectives, raise ambitions and opportunities of all students, establish clear roles and accountabilities, and build quality among teachers and school leaders, based on the work of the National Institute for Teacher and School Leadership Quality. The strategy should encourage partnerships between municipalities, private organizers and schools to foster mutual support and development. An assessment and assessment framework should be developed to monitor progress on implementation of the strategy and overall results.

Strengthen the School Inspectorate to shift from a culture of managerial compliance to responsibility for development. This requires consolidation and expanding the role of the School Inspectorate through: 1) a more critical identification of strengths and areas of development, follow-up, promotion of networking, and robust self evaluations, and 2) reports on effectiveness of the efforts of municipalities and private organizers to improve the quality of education in their schools. In addition, school leaders should be encouraged to play a direct role in review by, for example, becoming peer evaluators. Resource: Improving Schools in Sweden: An OECD Perspective

Structure and Development at school Education in Denmark:

In Denmark, basic education is obligatory for all, however, there is no compulsion for parents to ensure child is present at school. It is a matter of choice for the parents whether they provide education to their child: in the openly provided public primary and lower secondary schools, in a private school, or at home. The general upper secondary school mainly grooms children for higher education, while vocational education and training mainly aims at growing young. The education in Denmark has been established under the auspices of the Danish Ministry for Education.

Pre-school education: Childcare institutions cover nurseries (age group 0-2 years), kindergartens (age group 3-5 years) and the pre-school class in primary schools (normally for 6-year-olds). There are also integrated institutions (nursery-kindergartens) cooperative to children aged 1-5. Attendance is not compulsory.

Primary and lower secondary education: At the primary level, the comprehensive school covers the entire period of compulsory education. It is not divided into a primary and lower secondary stage. The consists of a voluntary pre-school class, the nine-year compulsory program and a voluntary tenth year. It thus caters to pupils aged 6-17. The first six years are normally for the age group 7-12, while years 7-9(10) are normally for pupils aged 13-16(17). In 2006 it has been envisaged to make the pre-school class compulsory, thus extending the period of compulsory education from nine to ten years.

Secondary education: There are two types of general upper secondary education: the gymnasium and the higher preparatory examination courses (HF). The gymnasium offers a three-year program leading to the Upper Secondary School Leaving examination, which qualifies for admission to university and other higher education programs. Full-time HF courses last two years and are for students who have completed the voluntary tenth year of the complete school. HF courses also qualify for admission to higher education, although specific elective subjects or a determined level of achievement may be compulsory. There are two vocationally oriented upper secondary education programs, one leading to the higher commercial examination (HHX) and the other leading to the higher technical examination (HTX). Both are of three years’ period and qualify for entrance to higher education. Normally they are offered at business colleges and technical colleges, respectively.

The Ministry of Education each year issues holiday guidelines for the public school, setting the number of holidays and days off, as well as the date of the opening and end of the summer holidays for the school and for general upper secondary education. However, the public school management are free to decide on where to place these holidays and days off. At usual upper secondary level, it is the school board that decides on the holiday plan. In vocational education and training, the schools decide on the organization of the school year, but within the same context as the other school levels. The Act on the public school (Ministry of Education Consolidation Act no. 55 of 17 January 1995) founds that “the school year shall begin on 1 August and shall normally comprise 200 school days”. At the upper secondary level, the school year comprises of thirty-five to thirty-six weeks excluding the tests period. The academic year is divided into two terms: from September to December and from January/February to May/June. Students have a holiday week in October, at Christmas and at Easter. The weekly and daily timetable varies from one level to the next, but at all levels the lessons last forty-five minutes.

(http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/archive/Countries/WDE/2006/WESTERN_EUROPE/Denmark/Denmark.htm)

Improving: Inspiration levels and the learning process at large benefits from more physical exercise and activities that help develop the health of children and youth. Physical exercise and activity may be included in the subject-divided lessons. This may be done by leading short periods of physical activity such as a morning run, ball games or related, other longer lasting and continual actions, e.g. in cooperation with local associations such as sports clubs, cultural centers etc., or by using physical activity as a pedagogical tool in functioning with the contents of the subjects. It is the responsibility of the head to ensure that, within the overall teaching time, pupils participate in physical exercise and activity each day to an extent conforming to an average of 45 minutes per day.

Strong objectives for pupils’ learning will contribute to improved academic standards for both the emotionally strong and the emotionally weak pupils. The explanation of Common Objectives will, among other things, support the headmasters’ work with goal-oriented teaching and the teachers’ daily work with planning, implementation and evaluation of the teaching. The scope and number of Common Objectives will be reduced and simplified significantly. The illumination will help the headmasters, the parents and the learners to better understand the goals in order for them to become active partners in relation to the learning procedure of the pupils.

The increase in the number of lessons will be implemented at all schools by instructing that the obligatory minimum number of lessons for Danish respectively, per form level. The purpose of increasing the number of lessons for these two major subjects is to provide more time for in-depth academic study and allow for a variation of teaching forms where all pupils may fully benefit from the teaching. To improve the quality of Danish and math’s lessons, funds will be set aside for a three-year research and development project which will develop new teaching methods for Danish and math’s in order to challenge all children and make the teaching more relevant. This may be done by incorporating IT as an incorporated part of the teaching and at the most innovative form levels by using math’s to solve practical tasks such as personal finances in order to make the subject more important to pupils.

Most children should encounter English at an early age and are motivated to learn the language. Therefore, English will be introduced already from form level 1. The net number of lessons in English will be increased compared to the presently suggested number of lessons by one weekly lesson at form levels 1 and 2, correspondingly. A good linguistic foundation will prepare Danish pupils for life in a globalized world where the demand for linguistic skills needed in order to survive in the job market is high both in Denmark and abroad. Starting from form level 7 it will furthermore be possible for pupils to select a third foreign language as an elective subject. This may be German, French, Spanish or other foreign languages that the schools choose to suggestion.

Schools must be more open to the nearby community. This will be accomplished by integrating local sports clubs, cultural centers and other associations into the school day by committing municipalities to such collaboration. Furthermore, the public school and municipal music and arts schools must commit to collaborating. However, it is up to the individual school management to choose how cooperation is put into practice. additionally, the headmaster may permit a pupil to fulfil his/her obligatory education by taking lessons at the municipal youth school in subjects that also occur within the School.

To protected the best possible result of these works, all parties must accept larger responsibility, confirming that efforts are planned and implemented more efficiently, and thus that the latest evidence-based knowledge will be used in the daily teaching and the daily communication with the children. Teachers who are skillfully deep in the subject are to ensure that pupils receive an education of even higher academic and pedagogical quality. The target is that, by 2020, all pupils in the public school will be taught by teachers who have either found main subject experiences from their teacher education within the subjects they teach, or who have obtained corresponding academic qualifications through continued professional development. The competencies of school headmasters and managers will also be improved in relation to implementing and working with the contents and new administration tools in the new comprehensive school as part of a stronger pedagogical management.

The school board’s principles for cooperation between school and home must spell out the principles for parents’ duty in connection with the partnership. These principles will for example, define the school’s outlooks in relation to parents’ contribution in parent-teacher meetings, parent-teacher-pupil meetings as well as academic and social activities at school. In this way, parents may provide to shaping the approach to and the handling of the cooperation in which they play a vital role. Moreover, this will ensure ownership of the principles in the parent group, thus creating it possible to clearly define probabilities to parents. At the same time, an effort will be started to prepare parents for school board work. This effort will be launched in cooperation with the National Association of School parents. Therefore, a project is being conducted in collaboration with the Danish Public School Students’ Association regarding the involvement of pupils, which will provide a deeper understanding of the effects of involving pupils in planning and evaluation of the teaching. To improve pupils’ engagement and involvement in the public school, an effort will be launched under the auspices of the learning authorities, aimed at deeper pupil involvement. Furthermore, a number of steps are taken to growth the number of pupil-to pupil activities. (Source: Improving the Public School).

Structure and Development at schooling in Austria:

According to the School Organization Act of 25 July 1962 “it shall be the task of the Austrian school to foster the development of the talents and potential abilities of young persons in accordance with ethical, religious and social values and the appreciation of that which is true, good and beautiful, by giving them an education corresponding to their respective courses of studies. It shall give young people the knowledge and skills required for their future lives and occupations and train them to acquire knowledge on their own initiative”. The Austrian authorized system guarantees general access to public schools without distinction of birth, gender, race, status, class, language or religion. Private schools, in contrast, may select pupils according to these criteria, although such selection is rarely applied. Here is the schooling structure and process.

http://www.ibe.unesco.org/National_Reports/ICE_2004/austria_en.pdf

Pre-school education: Nursery school is the usual form of pre-primary education for children age group 3 to 6 years. However, it does not form part of the education system. Nursery education is noncompulsory and children attend at their parents’ creativity. Children up to 3 years of age may attend a nursery if available.

Primary education: Primary education is compulsory for all children age group 6 years. It covers four years and normally is offered at the primary school (Grundschule). Children with special needs either attend special school education, which are run in similar to the primary school structure, or are integrated into ordinary primary schools. The upper cycle of primary education is provided at the school (Grades V to VIII), although is still offered in a few locations.

Secondary education: Secondary education is offered at different types of schools: The general secondary school (Hauptschule) covers Grades V-VIII and provides further general education, in the last two years’ classes prepare students for work. Students with an appropriate level of attainment can transfer to the academic secondary school, otherwise they enter medium-level or higher-level technical and vocational education colleges, or enroll in the one-year polytechnic school. The academic secondary school covers a four-year lower level (ages group 10 to14 year) and a four-year upper level, (ages group 14 to18), concluding in the matriculation examination. The first two years are common for all students. The third and the fourth years are divided into three types: Gymnasium (focus on languages), Real gymnasium (focus on mathematics, science, descriptive geometry and handicraft), and Wirtschaftskundliches Real gymnasium (focus on chemistry, biology, psychology, home economics and nutrition and handicraft). In addition to the three types of gymnasium there is also a separate upper-level type of gymnasium. Students having completed Grade VIII can also enter: (I) training colleges for kindergarten teachers and social personnel, which suggestion five-year programs terminating in the enrollment and diploma test; (ii) medium-level secondary technical and vocational education colleges offer programs lasting one to four years, students completing three- and four-year programs sit the vocational matriculation examination; (iii) higher-level secondary technical and vocational education colleges offer five-year programs leading to the matriculation and diploma examination.

The polytechnic school (Polytechnische Schule) provide fundamental vocational training to students having finished Grade VIII and wanting to learn a profession. Vocational training is provided to a considerable extent through the internship training system. A widespread range of training programs in different works and trades are offered under the apprenticeship scheme, lasting between two and four years. Students attend obligatory vocational school by age groups on at least one day of the week, or in blocks covering at least eight weeks per year. At the end of the preparation training, students sit the vocational enrollment examination.

Depending on the respective province, the school year in Austria starts on the first or second Monday in September and ends on the Friday between 27 June and 3 July, or 4 and 10 July. On average, a school year consists of 180 instructional days. Headmasters must see to it that the total number of teaching periods per week units established for the curriculum is evenly spread over the days of the week.

Figure: Structure of the Austrian Education System

(Soursces: http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/archive/Countries/WDE/2006/WESTERN_EUROPE/Austria/Austria.htm

Development of the Austrian School System:

In Austria, responsibility for school improvement does not only rest with the Ministry of Education, the Regional Boards of Education, or the school inspectors. Within the new authorized framework that sets school autonomy, the school principals or directors are mainly responsible for the quality of their schools. They are, however, supported by a well working managing infrastructure that helps them to reach that objective: to improve school quality they have school quality managers who assist the heads in all quality matters. On a regional level, there are quality coordinators that regularly meet with their partners and organization councils and set the future plans. Since there are, however, enough other experiments that school heads and inspectors alike have to tackle, reviews and outlooks on the pedagogical setting are carried out by means of quality reports which are edited by the schools, collected by the inspectors and finally used to compile a nationwide report by the Government.

http://www.sici-inspectorates.eu/getattachment/b30c46e8-34f4-448a-a161-1cb1b03c4d18

This goal subsequently took the form of successive dismantling of the often primitively organized upper level Volkschule, extension of compulsory schooling to nine years, the establishment of a “music-oriented Real gymnasium” and a “Pedagogic Academy” to train public school teachers. In vocational middle schools and higher level schools, the vocational and general education curricula were coordinated, while in compulsory vocational schools, technical education took precedence. The expansion of general education as the additional province of the vocational school was first established in 1975 and put into practice after 1990 with the introduction of “Technical English” and “German and Communications” into the curriculum.

In the late 60’s, Austria was swept up in the improvement movement which the findings of various OECD meetings and resulting recommendations triggered in nearly all developed countries. Viewpoints from the first OECD Report, “Educational Planning in Austria”, was one of the primary foundations for the following intensive educational planning and school improvement procedure. The most important developments primarily concerned

· pre-school and assistance to children held back from school attendance

· Grundschule, a better match of learning opportunities to the individual child's abilities by the creation of appropriate organizational forms and application of specific systems, foreign language orientation classes, and all-day day care.

· at the Secondary Level I, the testing of various features of integrated school type organizational forms and forms of all-day care.

· in the “polytechnic curriculum”, testing of performance groups and remedial courses in compulsory subjects such as German, mathematics and technical drawing, and electives, improved vocational orientation with respect to passage from the Secondary Level I to Secondary Level II, in particular with regard to dual track vocational education.

The present focus in education are founded on the principle that future school development must be geared more closely to the needs of those directly affected by education. One importance of this attitude is to design measures to create more discretion for individual schools. Changes in the curriculum for each school type may be made only to the extent of 15% of the teaching hours, altering these to required courses so as to create an individual school profile. Moreover, within certain considerations, the school in question can decide on the class participant size. School self-government in the vocational middle and higher schools is effected by electives within course areas. The funding demands process for all federal schools has been easy.

Work is currently underway in Austria to make quality standards and assessment tools in reliance on and in maintenance of OECD developments for example, Schools and Quality and Teacher Quality. The requirement is certainly to explain the criteria for school quality, which must be the subject of an on-going discussion in the community. The following criteria are suggested: the quality of teaching and learning at school, teacher quality and qualifications the response to demands for school management within the context of the developing self-image of schools (i.e. leadership, co-operation, management) the environment and means of cooperation by school associates (i.e. teachers, pupils, parents in terms of duty, democratization, shared design and shared accountability), as well as the opportunities for and obstacles to increasing school quality.

School organization development also requires critical thinking on the present self-image of school inspectors. The school management must learn to representative more decision-making authority and disposition rights all while simultaneously training its advisory and support tasks. Initial steps in this direction are being taken. Alongside the now very pronounced organizational-functional focus, the fundamental idea and to some extent the motor of the new approach of the comprehensive Austrian school improvement is not to be overlooked, namely, to continue to develop equal opportunity and access to education in the Austrian school system. The description of the most recent focus points Austrian school improvement clearly shows that a school confronted with many new national social tasks needs stronger offensive plans to expand its operating scope.

http://www.oecd.org/edu/research/1818705.pdf

Chapter 4: Human Resource Management in Educational Institute:

What is Human Resource Management (HRM):

HRM is covered of practices and procedures that shape the behaviors and skills of employees to encourage higher functioning levels (Cabrera & Bonache, 1999). Such performs are expected to absolutely influence the quality of service (Consten & Salazar, 2011; Heskett, Jones, Loveman, Sasser, & Schlesinger, 1994). Strategic HRM emphases on the leader’s value administration, planned partnering, human resource process and highlighting on talent, knowledge, and human capital management (Nankervis, 2011; Davidson, McPhail, & Barry, 2011).

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254364437_A_Case_Study_of_Human_Resource_Practices_in_Small_Hotels_in_Sweden

Human resource management (HRM or simply HR) is the management of human resources. It is a task in the organizations planned to exploit worker functioning in service of an employer’s strategic goals. ^[1] HR is primarily concerned with the managing of people within organizations, concentrating on strategies and on systems. ^[2] HR sections and units in organizations typically assume a number of actions, including employee benefits design, employee recruitment, training and development, functioning appraisal, and rewarding. ^[3] HR also focus itself with organizational modification and developed relations, that is, the balancing of organizational performs with requirements developing from collective trading and from governmental laws.^[4]

The National Institute of Personal Management (NIPM) of India has defined human resources management as “that part of management which is concerned with people at work and with their relationship within an enterprise. Its aim is to bring together and develop into an effective organization of the men and women who make up enterprise and having regard for the well – being of the individuals and of working groups, to enable them to make their best contribution to its success”.

Human Resource Management in Education:

Human resource management can be seen as the plan of formal systems in an organization to ensure effective use of human talents to achieve organizational objectives. Griffin (1997), defined human resource management as the set of organizational activities concentrating at attracting, developing and maintaining an effective staff. Human resource management is a fundamental function of management that defines the performance of staff in any institute. This simple implies that when staff in the education organizations are adequately recruited, selected and supervised, instructed and adequately satisfied, and providing for, appropriately developed, assessed and promoted on the job, they will be committed to the job, remain devoted and productive in the education systems. Hence, human resource management in education is the procedure of inspiring personnel to maximize their performance to starting from the day they are recruited. That means utilizing people to perform responsibilities and functions in the education (Oduma, 2012).

Every educational organization depends heavily on the human resources for performance of its program. Nwakaand Ofojebe (2010) definite that teachers are the vital resources for effective implementation and understanding of the educational plan and goals at the practical level of classroom. It is the teacher who eventually interprets and implements policy as represented in the school curriculum, which is designed to actualize educational objectives (Omojunwa, 2007). Improving educational standards is only possible through the teachers. Teachers therefore are the most crucial entity in the school. They are the highest assistance to learning. Human resource management in education fundamentally is concerned with three major issues namely. For example, Assessing the need for staff ii. Satisfying the need for staff and iii. Providing and improving the staff services.

Human resource management in education is a set of observes and techniques of integrating and maintaining the teaching staff in the school so that the school can succeed their determination and as well as meet the objectives for which they were established. It is the inspiration and co-ordination of the actions and effort of the teachers in school in order to improvement maximum output from them and so achieve the aims of education optimally. The functions include the following:

i. Staff maintenance

ii. ii. Staff relations

iii. iii. Staff development

iv. iv. Procurement of staff

v. v. Job performance reward.

http://www.eajournals.org/wp-content/uploads/Human-Resource-Management-In-Education.pdf

Human resource management in education, appraisal of management concepts in education. It is sometimes assumed that “people” in educational organizations means teachers. Not other employed within the school or college, nor even students for whose development and learning the organization is established. The management of human resources in education focuses on all adult employed within school/college and, in this case of external agencies and contractors, those who provide a service to the organization.

Human resource Management at Schooling in Selected three Country:

Human resource management as a main strategic function in successful educational institutes in Europe. Organizations gradually recognize that people are the key source of competitive advantage and therefore human resource management has taken on a more strategic part. Therefore, decisions considering, training and reward strategies have become more significant. Educational leaders are accountable for the selection, training, functioning management, compensation decisions. The effect of globalization, use of information communication and teaching-learning technologies growth competition for talented educators, modification and expectations of the employment relationship. Nowadays, people are specially trained in this field to meet the growing demand of HRM responsibility, which includes planning, organizing, staffing, performance management, staff development, leadership development etc. (Guest, 2007). There is emphasis on understanding and the development of the skills required to be an effective educational manager in area of people management in selected three countries, Sweden, Denmark and Austria.

Sweden:

Human resource is a crucial part of any organization. The administrators working in this section are called human resource managers. Human resource managers in education institute also perform these common jobs. Apart of these, there are other human resource managers in education. The main job of other human resource managers in education is unique and different than other organization. It will be more supportive if we define who these Human resource managers in education are. In education organization, they are principals, their deputies, head of the department, teachers, parents and so on. Their basic responsibilities are to manage, nurture, educate and prepare the prospective human resources of the society. These potential human resources are the students who will lead the country, society and family. Their development will take the country in its great height. Success of a country is largely determined by the quality of these resources. The people who are accountable to develop these future human resources are the greatest persons of the society.

As the development of educational system all over the world, school leaders are facing the pressure in improving and facing difficult circumstantial challenges as they work to confirm that all students achieve at levels instructed by No Child Left Behind (NCLB) requirements. In addition, principals must find teachers who are highly trained, committed, and ready to face the challenges of today's classrooms.

http://www.grin.com/en/e-book/286040/human-resource-managers-in-education-their-roles-in-school-effectiveness.

Evidence on student functioning, instructional exercises of teachers and the school climate that the Swedish school system is struggling to find its stability among structural and demographic changes. As in other OECD countries, Swedish principals and teachers report that their main instructional challenge is dealing with heterogeneity of student, in terms of learning issues that students present and motivation of students to engage in interesting work. Swedish principals report a higher incidence than in other OECD countries of teacher absence, teachers struggling with student learning changes, and student learning being hindered by teachers’ low probabilities of their students. Between 2003 and 2012, there has also been a slight decline in school leaders’ evaluation of the disciplinary climate in Swedish schools. Sweden has the highest proportion of students reaching late for school of all OECD countries. There has also been a decline in Swedish students’ positive thoughts toward school, compared to a growth across other OECD countries. The quality of student-teacher relations in Swedish classrooms is among teachers within schools; only a small proportion is between different schools.

At the most fundamental level, a nation’s education system is only as good as the quality of the people who teach and lead in it. There are, to be sure, essential structural factors that contribute to a strong system of teaching and learning in society and flexible organized structure, clear strategy guidance, adequate resources, and clear systems for monitoring results. But in the end, these constructions and policies are only as effective as the people who assume daily accountability for teaching and learning.

Moreover, as Sweden’s presentation on successive PISA assessments attests, building and sustaining a strong human resource base for the school sector is not a one-time act. A human resource system that might be enough, even exemplary, at one time, with one set of demographic and economic factors, might fall short of the demands of a new set of factors. Swedish society is continually changing, and new economic and social factors must be taken into account in making and sustaining a high-quality teaching and leadership cadre. (Re: Improving School in Sweden)

School leaders’ responsibility and management: Main objectives of the highly decentralized system was to create more flexibility and to allow the individual schools to decide how they want to succeed the goals set by management. Principals, teachers and other staff are main responsible for translating national and local objectives into concrete teaching objectives at each school. All schools must prepare quality reports. The content and institute of teaching, among other things, are specified in the school’s plan of work. The duty of the principal is to develop this plan in discussion with the teachers. Principals are accountable for the development of their school, the students’ results and the school’s success in achieving its targets, as well as for ensuring the quality of the teaching provided. The principal’s role includes responsibility for financial management, personnel management, the work organization, environment, educational development and quality improvement.

The principal appointment the teachers to work at the school and is able to negotiate different employment and salary circumstances within the limits set by local and national actions. Teachers have a high degree of autonomy for the selection of teaching approaches and for student assessment. The Swedish school management structure is today considered in many different ways at the school level. However, there are some main streams of strategies. One rather common construction in the obligatory schools is to change from large school management areas with a team of school leaders that manage a bunch of schools to small school units where the common principle of “one school house - one leader” is practiced. Where the idea of a larger school management area is kept, they are often divided into several working units and in each of them a teacher has a duty as the unit-leader. The principal, her/his representatives and the unit-leaders meet frequently to decide on significant local topics for example how the Local Working Plan is to be developed, money for teaching- materials, in what way the in-service training of the teachers will be organized during the future year or what money there is need for during the next year, etc.

In Sweden, in both compulsory schools and in upper secondary schools the teachers have very strong position. The principal calls the teachers to common meetings a couple of times during the school year to notify them about essential matters and to have a probability to discuss them internally. The unions of the teachers are also consulted in different matters like selections of new principals, distribution of money in the school, plans of the in-service training of the school. The Teachers Unions are usually highly respected by the decision makers and they are significant partners too, but sometimes also a clear difficulty for the principal, when it comes to changes in school organization and planning of teacher’s work. (Rr: Improving school leadership in Sweden)

Development: The core production of school is learning and teaching, and the mission from beginning to end is about students. So it is essential that the school bead makes a distinction in quality of teaching and learning in school, and eventually, in the quality of life of students (Richard, 2008). However, from several research works, it is found that school principal inspiration student achievement by determining the school’s instructional climate and instructional organization. According to Reed et. al. (2001), school heads in lower performance school are more likely to modify their leadership focus and emphasis on improving test scores. (Re: Human Resource Managers in Education. Their Roles in School Effectiveness)

The human resources of the school sector will experience a major turnover in the next decade or so, building possible a major shift in the culture, practices, and results of the education system. Meeting this experiment can only be skillful by building capacity for teaching and learning through a long-term human resource strategy for the school sector that forms an integrated part of a central school improvement strategy to move the system towards educational quality (Chapter 4). This human resource strategy needs to be based in a stable set of principles and a tighter relationship between research and practice, taking its point of departure from what we currently know with some degree of certainty about what works in supporting high quality teaching and learning.

Improving the status of the education profession is a national problem requiring national solutions. Whether the national emphasis occurs through direct control or through the use of organizing authority and the creation of consensus guidelines and frameworks that are self-imposed by constituent groups, there must be some mechanisms for developing national consensus on the importance of quality in the education sector. (Improving Schools in Sweden)

Denmark:

All over the world, school leaders are not only facing the stress in reforming and supports, but also facing difficult contextual challenges as they work to confirm that all students achieve at levels required. The significance of the role of principals on the school organization cannot be over looked. Principals is a vital role to build a school organization (Amoloyee 2004). We called them school managers. In the school system, the principal as a manager to motivate his teachers to achieve the goals and objectives of the school. The main duty of the principal is to develop teaching and learning in the school. Adetona (2003) noted that the task of the principal is to produce well educated boys and girls through effective teaching and learning. In Denmark School, Principal, teachers, management and others working as a HR. Now I am going to discuss about responsibility as a HR in Denmark School and Development.

Schools are responsible for offering education in line with the national goals for the school and the needs of their municipality, and for design and organizing their education program. At separate schools, school principals hold the HR and learning responsibility. They develop proposals for the actions in their school and for the budget within the financial agenda put down by the municipality. They are responsible for choosing, managing and supervising their staff and teachers, making decisions about their teachers’ working time, and distributing tasks and accountabilities.

Teacher recruitment Teachers are working by the municipalities, but are involved to an individual school. School principals are in responsibility of the recruitment of new teachers, within national work and duty regulations and municipal lessons. They control the share of resources in the school financial plan that should be used on teacher salaries and recruit teachers consequently. Before proclaiming a vacant position, school principals are reliable for determining the kinds of skills that are required. The teacher recruitment situation varies across schools and municipalities. A current survey from January 2016 of the Danish Union of Teachers recommends an increasing challenge to recruit qualified teachers (DLF, 2016). Most individuals with a teacher education really work as teachers. According to data from the Ministry for Children, Education and Gender Equality, the Ministry of Higher Education and Science and Statistics Denmark, about 84% of qualified teachers in service work in the education sector. (Danish Ministry of Children, Education and Gender Equality, 2016a).

Human resources according to their needs Latest changes in the national rules on functioning conditions for teachers (Act no. 409) and the 2014 school reform have improved schools’ flexibility in using the time and abilities of their teachers. Under the new regulation, schools have the opportunity to let teachers better utilize their specific competencies. Schools can more easily emphasis on student learning as the key issue of school management. The capabilities of teachers need continuous development and informing (Jackson, 2012a). The procedure tries to combine professional development that is in the concern of the individual teacher, and, in addition, meets the needs of the school. The former is significant to stimulate teacher motivation, while the latter is important in order to develop the school in the required direction. The creation of a system with learning experts is also an improvement of the system.

Other staff in schools: Teacher’s supporters have less training and are often hired to help students with special needs within a school. The use of these distinguished types of staff modifies greatly from school to school and municipality to municipality. This is likely an outcome of the autonomy that school principals have to staff their schools within the financial plan that the school has been distributed by the municipality. As the OECD 2013 shows, there are overall 10.3 teachers to one pedagogical help staff in lower secondary education. This compares to a teacher pedagogical support workforces’ ratio of 14.4 on average across TALIS countries, and 8.2 in Finland, 5.4 in Norway, and 7.1 in Sweden (OECD, 2014b).

School leadership: School principals in Denmark are seen as the managing and extension of the local municipal government. Furthermore, a teaching circumstantial, there is no formal education obligation to be qualified as a school leader in Denmark. School leaders are former teachers and may go on to take a diploma course, and then a master’s degree, which are mainly theoretical in nature. The Danish Association of School Leaders offers a three-day course for anew appointed leaders. Several municipalities defined how they worked with school leaders in a cooperative manner to support their on-the-job training in areas such as budgeting, school development planning and the monitoring and assessment of school improvement initiatives.

Strengthening pedagogical leadership focused on improving teaching and learning: The management of the school leadership profession in Denmark shows a number of deficits, which should be focused to further develop pedagogical management. First, active school leadership, i.e. teaching, is not defined by a framework or illustrative profile that focuses school leaders’ pedagogical function. Representatives of the Danish Association of School Leaders expressed to the OECD review team that there was a great contract of attention on pedagogical leadership as well as a need on the part of school leaders to move this work. The association also emphasized its own support creativities they had developed for leaders in the form of a publication on classroom observation and feedback. However, school leaders felt that they were lacking training and practice to work in this manner and the evaluation team gained the impress that school principals could dedicate more attention to their pedagogical leadership function. According to data from the OECD TALIS 2013, school leaders in Denmark are still less active in pedagogical leadership than school leaders in other OECD countries. Danish school principals in lower secondary schools stated to spend half of their time on managerial and leadership tasks and meetings, and less than one-fifth of their time on curriculum and teaching-related tasks.

Develop a vision for teacher professionalism: Many changes to the education system in Denmark. Teachers have been asked to teach about outcomes, to meet the needs of students with special needs in regular classrooms, to work with professional teachers within their schools, to use data and indication to plan instruction and they have had their working circumstances redefined by regulation, not negotiation. Teachers’ generally voiced support for the changes in prospects around teaching and learning in the classroom and the school. To support teachers, school leaders and municipal leaders in supportive and the implementation of these changes, Denmark should highlight developing a national teacher profile, dream or standards of practice. A national teacher profile would connect the new expectations concerning teacher practice (for example, cooperation and team work in schools, monitoring and peer feedback and observation, continuous professional development, reflective practice, and use of student assessment data, etc.). The professional standards would also set out teachers’ needed competencies in the use of indication, data and assessments.

A national teacher profile would help to provide an outline to guide the development of the profession as whole. It could be leading initial teacher education, teachers’ continuing professional development, teacher feedback and assessment, and teachers’ career development. In a decentralized system like Denmark, Teachers’ effort and expected information and skills must reflect the student learning goals that schools are aiming to achieve. The planning of a profile of teacher abilities should, thus, be based on the Common Objectives, the objectives for student learning in Denmark. The main is to communicate the expectation that teachers use opportunities to improve their professional knowledge to develop their teaching practice to rise the learning outcomes for students.

Improve the planning of teacher professional learning and strengthen job-embedded learning in schools: The Ministry of Education of Ontario allocates human and financial resources to support professional learning in areas that focus system needs in literacy and skill. Many of these initiatives also support the use of cooperative teacher review with the purpose of moving away from system-wide professional development concerning professional learning that is both job-embedded and focused on being more alert to local needs (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2007a, 2010, 2014a, 2014b, 2014c, 2015). Findings from Darling-Hammond (2000) “indicate that measures of teacher preparation and certification are by far the strongest correlates of student achievement in reading and mathematics, both before and after controlling for student poverty and language status.” However, in Denmark, there have been limited studies that document a connection between teacher subject knowledge and student outcomes. They also located that partnership and ongoing discussion among teachers about teaching and learning tended to be complemented by advanced student performance.

National teacher and school leader profiles would help set clear expectations in this regard, both for teachers and their school leaders, and help gear school level planning processes to focus on this type of teacher learning and development. Schools should also pay attention to the development of professional learning societies. Education systems such as Japan, Shanghai and Singapore use professional learning societies as a key instrument for teacher growth and development. Teachers work together to set learning goals, research and try new methods, observe others, receive feedback, and assess evidence of impact in the school. (Jensen et al., 2012a). Professional learning societies could also help develop teachers’ capacities for using assessment and data in a non-threatening setting. (Re: OECD Reviews of School Resources Denmark)

Austria:

The school head has to organize all matters, regarding the federal law, except concerns going under the jurisdiction of other elements of the schooling system. The school head is the direct superior of all teachers working at the school, and of all other followers. Principals is responsible to run the school and to cultivate the communication between the school, the pupils, the legal guardians, and other staff with teaching duties. Apart from the educational and managerial duties, heads have to see that all legal provisions and instructions of managerial school authorities are complied. Furthermore, the school head has to care for the guiding of the official documents and the order in school. Other duties, compulsory upon the school head from other, particularly about instructions from public service law, remain natural. In schools where a permanent deputy of the school leader is appointed, Principals has to assist the school head fulfilling his or her duties. In schools offering day care where a teacher or educator is selected for the assistance of the school head regarding the duties of supervision, heads have to fulfil all organizational duties closely connected with the supervisory part of the school. Duties which are incumbent on this teacher can be determined by the Federal Ministry of Education or by the school head. In Austria, analyses the availability and organization of managerial and other teaching support staff and the local management of schools through school leadership. To concludes in suggesting to statement these issues.

Schools may also work managerial staff, but managerial staff is generally not generally available. The recruitment of managerial support employees is the responsibility of the local school board in the case of federal schools, and the responsibility of the provincial management authorities or school maintainers in the case of local schools. The federal government’s November 2015 reform suggestion foresees giving schools the probability to convert up to 5% of their teaching staff places into pedagogical support staff positions (BMBF and BMWFW, 2015)

Tasks and responsibilities School principals’ responsibilities are regulated through laws established by the federal lawmaker regardless of the school type, including local schools. Accordingly, school principals are the direct managers of the teachers and other staff at their school. School principals have to advise teachers in their teaching and pedagogical action and to regularly observer training and student functioning. They may visit classrooms and observe at any time. Regarding the recruitment and task of teachers to their school by the accountable authority, school heads must prepare a plan to development the future need of human resources in their school and submit data. Further, School principals are accountable for the controlling of the school and the link between the school, students and the parents. They are also duty for applying rules and other legal systems. They organize the meetings of the school partners and are responsible for performing the decisions adopted at these meetings. School principals allocate the yearly financial plan granted to the school and prepare the school’s annual financial statements. School leaders of small and very small schools can receive a 25-50% reduction of their teaching duties (Bruneforth et al., forthcoming; Eurypedia, 2015).

The federal government’s November 2015 reform proposal envisages some changes to school principals’ tasks and tasks as part of the plan to give schools greater pedagogical, organizational, staff and financial self-rule. Concerning the management of schools’ human resources, it is planned that school leaders are consulted in the selection of staff, that they hold a veto right against new selections, and that they should be involved in work decisions, such as contract renewal. School leaders should be accountable for staff development and assessments and arranging and approving teachers’ further training within the available resources. And school leaders are planned to receive the possibility to convert up to 5% of their teaching staff positions into support staff positions and to use external teaching staff for special areas of focus (BMBF and BMWFW, 2015)

Challenges: Schools’ and school principals’ responsibility for human resource management decisions in Austria is very limited. This limits school principals’ scope for inspiring development among their teachers and for responding to interests about a teacher’s performance through human resource management decisions for example through influence on teachers’ salary progression. Furthermore, school principals’ limited self-government, the lack of sufficient horizontal and vertical difference of the teacher career in Austria also weakens school principals’ potentials for setting incentives and for rewarding teachers for their work.

It is, therefore, no surprise that teachers in lower secondary schools reported for OECD TALIS 2008 that a teacher’s performance would not lead to positive or negative significances. Teachers in Austria were less likely to believe that they would be rewarded for high performance than teachers in other countries and teachers in Austria were less likely to believe that consistent underperformance would be picked up or addressed than teachers in other countries (OECD, 2009). Teachers have few opportunities to receive feedback and professional development is not used strategically: While school principals are responsible for assessing their teachers, both school principals and teachers interviewed by the OECD review team repeatedly indicated that, given the heavy workload of school principals, such formal assessment was not always methodically implemented for all teachers. Assessment seems too often to be focused on the least experienced teachers and to be less common for more experienced teachers.

While there shows to be no overall lack of teachers in Austria at the moment, it is important to ensure an adequate supply of skilled teachers. There already seem to be hidden lacks in certain geographical areas and specific subjects and Austria faces a huge retirement wave of teachers in the next decade. This denotes a loss of experienced teachers, but also an opening to renew the teaching staff and to provide the system with new ideas and perspectives of greater teacher professionalism.

Development: In Austria, there are serious concerns about the lack of sufficient administrative and pedagogical support staff. As a result, school principals and teachers have to take over many of the related tasks. This takes away time and focus for teaching and learning, which teachers generally value very highly. As research suggests, teachers in general are typically motivated by the intrinsic benefits of teaching – working with children and young people, helping them to develop, and making a contribution to society – and structures need to ensure that teachers are able to focus on these tasks (OECD, 2005). Specialised pedagogical support, such as school psychologists, are not always easily available for students if needed. Considering the current need to integrate a large number of young refugees and asylum seekers into the education system, the need to provide more pedagogical support staff in schools might become more pressing in the near future. Also, the lack of administrative support staff will make it difficult to give schools greater autonomy as this implies more tasks and responsibilities for school leaders.

Most importantly, a reform of education governance which places the responsibility for human resources (and teachers and other pedagogical support staff, in particular) in one hand and gives schools a greater say for human resource decisions could help the responsible agencies develop a more strategic approach to the distribution of human resources that meets schools’ needs. Under the current system, provinces have an incentive to hire teachers at the expense of other pedagogical support staff as the number of required teachers is part of the negotiations of staff plans with the federal level. And although more pedagogical support personnel seem to be available in provincial schools despite this disincentive to hire such staff, provinces do not seem to target the recruitment of such staff at the schools with the greatest needs.

In addition, Austria could further test out innovative and cost-effective ways of organising schools and administrative and pedagogical support. If municipalities maintain their role as school maintainers, this could involve the collaboration of different municipalities, particularly in rural areas (e.g. through Schulgemeindeverbände). And schools could be encouraged to collaborate more with other social services and non-formal education initiatives to provide support for children and young people in a more open format

Austria has started important steps to develop the management of its teaching profession with the implementation of a new primary teacher education system and a new teacher service code. Both initiatives provide an important basis for the creation of a single teaching profession beyond school types and a common school until the end of lower secondary education. They also have the possible to develop the quality of future teachers, as they target to offer a more attractive career and develop initial education, instruction and professional improvement. However, fundamental challenges remain to raise the quality of teaching and to make the most of the human resources that are available. This should be a key objective in the Austrian education system.

Two concerns stand out. First, the complex system of governance hinders the effective use of human resources during the education system as a whole. This interests the split of tasks for funding, distributing and managing human resources between federal, local and municipal levels in the overall compulsory schooling, the difference between local and federal sub-systems, and the lack of school autonomy for human resource management. These qualities of the Austrian education system prevent a universal vision and approach to the use of human resources in Austria’s schools and set encouragements for the allocation of human resources that does not essentially best meet the needs of schools. The unnecessary complication involved in the observing of the teacher labor market is a case in point, as is the lack of managerial staff, specifically in regional schools, the universal lack of pedagogical support staff, and the limited targeting of such staff to school needs in regional schools.

Second, it is important to develop a stronger professional method to teaching in Austria that reflects the essential for schools to become advanced learning-centered administrations that build on a better understanding of local procedures and technic to improve teaching and learning in organization with parents and the community. Teachers’ employment structure and conditions, that is the teacher career and working time actions, should reflect that teachers should be able to take on a broader range of roles that form an integral part of the teaching profession and cooperate to raise the quality of education at their school. This also needs a better management of human resources in schools facilitated through greater school autonomy in this regard and greater capacity for pedagogical school leadership. Re: OECD Reviews of School Resources Austria).

Conclusion:

Organizational Culture at School in Sweden:

The main tasks of the upper secondary school are to impart knowledge and to create the preconditions for students to acquire and develop their knowledge. Education should support the development of students into responsible persons who actively participate in and contribute to professional and societal life (Swedish national curriculum of upper secondary school, 2011).

Citizenship knowledge plays an important part in the Swedish national curricula and the quotation above from the curriculum of upper secondary school, 2011, confirms this importance. But it also confirms the importance of participating in social life. This means that the Swedish school has a double mission: Education should include knowledge as well as fundamental values. Not only is the subject of citizenship knowledge important but also the question about fundamental values. It means that all subjects on all levels in the Swedish school system have to balance knowledge and fundamental values. The School of Democracy must therefore be an environment for the free growth of the children. Society is changing so much that the pupils must get the chance to learn such 2 things which are important in the meeting with that life (School Commission 1948, p. 4, my translation).

The School Commission emphasised the importance of educating the pupils to be more independent, and if the pupils get more independence in their studies, the school would also be more democratic. The proposal from The School Commission was not only about democracy in a traditional way, it also meant the development of more independent pupils. Therefore, the proposal also demanded new ways of working in school; ways which stimulated the pupils to work more on their own and also more power to influence daily school life. (School Commission 1948). The Swedish schools have interpreted their mission of educating young people and preparing them for the role of active citizens. More specifically, we are interested in how the “good” or “aspirational” school is presented in the reports published by the Swedish Schools Inspectorate. Based on an interpretation of the Swedish Schools Inspectorate’s audits, the aim is to reconstruct discourses that emerge regarding the aspirational school; the mission of which is to support young people in their transformation into active citizens.

The core values of the Swedish schools and preschools are found in the curriculum for each school form; Lpfö98, (Skolverket, 2010), Lp11, (Skolverket, 2011a) and Gy11, (Skolverket, 2011b). These curricula state that the preschool and the school system are based on democratic values. They mention the core values and mission of the preschool and the school. In the curriculum for the compulsory school system, the preschool class and the recreation centre (Lp11), and the curriculum for the upper secondary school (Gy11), it appears that the education system is intended to help pupils obtain and develop knowledge and values (Skolverket, 2011b). These curricula refer to the Education Act (SFS 2010:800), which among other things determine that education is to convey and establish respect for human rights and fundamental democratic values that are the cornerstones of Swedish society. The 1998 preschool curriculum (Lpfö98) contains similar wording about the activities being designed in accordance with fundamental democratic values (Skolverket, 2010).

The main task of the upper secondary school is to convey knowledge and to create the right conditions for the pupils to retain and develop this knowledge. The education is to promote the pupil’s universal development into responsible adults who actively participate in and develop their professional and social settings (Gy11, Skolverket, 2011b). The curriculum also clearly states that the school’s task is to transfer values, convey knowledge and create conditions for the pupils to retain and develop knowledge. Furthermore it is clear that the school is to communicate such permanent knowledge as provides the foundation for a common frame of reference in society, and which is based on fundamental democratic values and human rights. This corresponds to the wording of the Swedish Education Act.

The compulsory school curriculum is worded a little differently. The departure point is that the school is to collaborate with the family to promote the universal personal development of the pupils into active, creative, competent and responsible individuals and citizens (Lp11, Skolverket, 2011a). This text shows that education and upbringing is viewed in a deeper sense as a matter of transferring and developing a cultural inheritance, meaning values, traditions, languages and knowledge from one generation to the next. The school’s task is to transfer fundamental values and to promote the pupils’ learning, in order to thus prepare them for their future private and professional lives. “The school should impart the more unvarying forms of knowledge that constitute the common frame of reference that all in society need” (p. 9). One important stated task of the school is to provide general knowledge and put things into context. Collaboration with the home environment is also emphasised, and it is clear that the school must be a support to the families in their responsibility for the upbringing and development of the children.

Ekman (2007) argues that the democratic mission of the school to promote the pupils’ desire to actively participate in society is now well-established, while she notes that the governing documents of the school system are vague in their descriptions of its objectives (Sandström, Kjellin, & Stier, 2008). Rönnlund (2013) points out that the ability to exert influence on decision-makers is part of the civic democratic skills that the school must impart to the pupils. The Swedish National

Sülke (2007) and Biesta, Lawy, and Kelly (2009) feel that civic education must begin by strengthening the pupils’ sense of self and confidence. This can be done by allowing young people a voice, taking their opinions seriously and giving them influence. Fiehn (2007) provides a similar argument, saying that civic education is an important part of young people’s development. By affording them the opportunity to learn about their rights and obligations as the starting point to understanding society, they can develop an active citizenship that prepares them for the challenges they will face later in life. Sandström, Kjellin, and Stier (2008) are of the opinion that the values and attitudes that are transferred and transformed in daily interactions take place to a large extent in the school, and that it is therefore essential to understand and monitor the teachers’ own attitudes, values and actions. Carlsson (2006) notes that the attributes and provisions given to pupils will also influence the kind of citizens they become, and as such what they can contribute to social developments in the long term.

In this present study, the Swedish audited school can be seen as the body representing and defending the current order, or the orthodoxy, while the Swedish Schools Inspectorate, being relatively new to the field, is characterised as a heterodoxy. Järvinen (2007) would argue that “[...] the heresy of the newcomer forces the establishment to break its silence, and allow doxa to be crystallised into orthodoxy; a defensive discourse to preserve its monopoly” (p. 274). Those who have established an optimal amount of recognised capital in the field will fight to preserve that capital, and to make it infinitely valid in the field in question. The challengers on the other hand, in this case the Swedish Schools Inspectorate, are trying to break the status quo and establish new truths in the field. Not least is it possible to show a heterodoxal colonisation by market economics sprung from NPM, which encourages measurability and effectiveness, while the often immeasurable, unclear and at times ineffective is seen as an expression of the doxa.

file:///Users/jakirhossin/Desktop/37633-130940-1-PB%20(2).pdf(The Swedish Schools Inspectorate’s View of Swedish Schools)

The curricula of the 1960s were influenced by John Dewey and his progressive pedagogy. Dewey’s ideas about activity pedagogy informed the Swedish school in general and Citizenship education in particular. Dewey’s influence on education resulted in the possibility to discuss and influence decisions regarding methods, schedules, textbooks, disciplinary questions and so on. According to Dewey, democracy must, be a natural part in daily school life. Therefore nurturinge democracy became a vital part in the Swedish curricula (Dewey 2004; Långström & Virta, 2012). One conclusion is thus, that the theories of John Dewey have made a great impact on the Swedish curriculums.

(http://www.londonmet.ac.uk/media/london-metropolitan-university/london-met-documents/faculties/faculty-of-social-sciences-and-humanities/research/ipse/Magnus-Grahn.pdf Citizenship education in the Swedish School – mission possible?)

Development: Schools and school leaders are experiencing a growing pressure to deliver high quality education. And there exists consensus that teachers should be encouraged and supported within the school context to develop professionally in order to deliver this. Authors J.Mercer, B.Barker, R.Bird, A.Odden, R.Rebore, E.Reimers and others actualize teachers professional learning communities, staff development programs, job training, necessity for use technologies in staff development. We know that good teaching methods have a significant positive impact on how and what students learn. The professional development of teachers is a lifelong learning process. Training is any systematic process used by organizations to develop employees' knowledge, skills, behaviours, or attitudes in order to contribute to the achievement of organizational goals. It is also referred to as human resource development. Training is used to improve the performance of employees in their present positions; to prepare workers for positions to which they are likely to be promoted in the future; and to respond to changes in the workplace, such as new technology and systems, internationalization, global competitiveness and the need for greater service orientation. In addition, training is provided by governments and organizations to improve the future employability of the hard-core unemployed, under-employed minority groups and workers whose present skills are becoming obsolete.

Alternatives to training include changing the way in which personnel are selected; changing job requirements through job redesign or technological change; and changing the way in which performance is managed (for example, introducing goal setting, feedback or reward systems). All of these alternatives can be used in place of, or in conjunction with, training initiatives.

The concept of “the team” is now firmly embedded in the educational management and human resource management. In education individuals frequently belong to more than one established team; staff members may teach in several subject areas. Senior management staff routinely have some classroom delivery responsibilities, and heads of department are usually members of a middle management group which has whole curriculum considerations. The importance of having team members who are capable of making different but complementary contributions was identified and developed by Belbin (1981, 1993). Unit develops the team theory and practice in educational institutions, team characteristics, development processes, team cohesiveness and other topics based on books written by A.R.Odden, J.Mercer, B.Barker, R.Bird.

Economic interest in training is generated by several attributes. Vocational learning, of which it is part, contributes strongly to the economic performance of companies, regions and countries. Increased knowledge and skill are associated with higher pay; unequal skill is an important cause of economic inequality. Public unemployment policies today emphasize training rather than job creation and income maintenance. Training is central to theories of internal labour markets, efficiency, wages and labour market segmentation. Finally, market failure is endemic to training, creating a potential case for public intervention (Paul Ryan).

Human resource and personnel management techniques are meaningful part of educational leaders’ professional competence. The core qualities and abilities of principals as school leaders are variously defined in the literature. Recruitment and selection make up the staffing function in organizations. The primary goal of staffing is to assure that companies get the qualified people they need in order for the company to operate as efficiently and effectively as possible. Prior to recruitment and selection, two steps must be taken. First, a company must scan and analyze the external environment and examine the company's internal situation to develop human resource plans and forecasts; these actions anchor the staffing effort. More broadly, these human resource plans form an integral part of an organization's strategic business plan. Eventually, to be effective, the staffing function should be thoroughly integrated with the company's overall business strategies. The second precursor to beginning the recruitment and selection effort is job analysis (Sally Riggs Fuller & Vandra L. Huber).

Organizational productivity hinges upon controlling the interplay of at least three variables, namely capital, technology and human resources. Effective control systems require information on what is occurring and a means of correcting or adjusting inputs when sensors indicate that change is needed. The contribution of an organization's human resources to productivity is more difficult to measure but it can be assessed in terms of work outputs produced or work behaviors exhibited over a specified time period. Performance appraisal involves assigning a value to employee behaviors or work outputs in terms of a criterion of productivity effectiveness (quantity, quality, timeliness) (Vandra L. Huber & Sally Riggs Fuller ).

In this unit you study relationship between human resource management and educational leadership. The ongoing development of people working in educational institutions is important for a variety reasons. These include the significance of the rapidly changing climate in education. There is an important leadership task in setting the vision and ensuring a strategic approach to staff development. J.Mercer, B.Barker, R.Bird, G.M.Steyn, E.van Niekerk books about education field allow better understand changing nature of human resource management in educational institutions.

The contrast between generalistic and contingency approaches is important and the thrust of evidence in support of the latter lends itself to a more realistic prescriptive approach to leadership. At the same time it must be recognized that there is often a degree of overlap between the two schemata. (Frank Heller)

Leadership – a process within groups in which one person, either by virtue of position or personality or both, obtains sufficient commitment of the other members to facilitate the achievement of group goals. Leadership style – a term used to describe the manner in which a person exercises leadership, especially in relation to their treatment of people and tasks.

References:

Re: https://europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/eu-in-brief_en

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union

http://www.oecd.org/sweden/sweden-should-urgently-reform-its-school-system-to-improve-quality-and-equity.htm

https://www.oecd.org/sweden/EAG2012%20-%20Country%20note%20-%20Sweden5.pdf

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_Denmark

https://www.oecd.org/edu/Denmark-EAG2014-Country-Note.pdf

http://elearning.iunworld.com/course/view.php?id=828

Author:

Jakir Hossin

Development Education Researcher for Third World Countries

Germany.

Date of Published: 30 March 2017

2 comments:

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The USA Mirror

Wednesday, March 29, 2017

Contemporary Trend of Educational Institution Development in Europe: Strategic development of European Schooling, Management and Policies in three Countries (Sweden, Denmark and Austria)

Table of Contents:

Chapter 1: International Education Policies and Reform:

Structure and Development at schooling in Austria:

2 comments:

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