The Comparison of Higher Education: Finland, Germany and Italy

- Jakir Hossin

Contents:

Introduction	3,4
Chapter 1 Globalization of Educational Markets	4
1.1. Globalization and Higher Education	4
1.2. Globalization of Higher Educational Markets in Finland	4
1.2.1.        Student mobility and study abroad	4,5
1.2.2.        Degree-seeking international student	5
1.2.3.        International staff	5
1.2.4.        Research and teacher mobility	5
1.2.5.        Research and innovation activities are becoming international	6
1.3. Globalization of Higher Educational markets in Germany	6,7
1.3.1.        Studying and training, living in Germany	7
1.3.2.        Branding	7
1.3.3.        Research global competition	8
1.3.4.        Ranking of higher education in Germany	8
1.3.5.        Germany student studying Abroad	8,9
1.3.6.        Free Movers	9
1.4. Globalization and Higher Education Market in Italy	9-11
Chapter 2 Comparison of Educational system	11
2.1. Higher Education System in Finland	11
2.1.1.   Admission	11
2.1.2.   Program Structure and Degree Requirements	12
2.1.3.   Academic Credits	12,13
2.1.4.   Examination and Grading	13
2.2. Higher Education System of Germany	13
2.2.1.   Types of Institutions and Institutional Status	14
2.2.2.   Higher Education entrance qualification	14
2.2.3.   Admission to higher education institutions	14,15
2.2.4.   Accreditation of study courses	15
2.2.5.   Teaching Methods	15,16
2.2.6.   Structure of higher education studies	16
2.2.7.   Grading Scheme	16
2.3. Higher Education system in Italy	17,18
Chapter 3 Introduction to the theory of Educational Management	18
3.1. Educational Management	18,19
3.2. Higher Education Management in Finland	19,20
3.3. University management in Germany	20
3.3.1.   Governance and Management	20,21
3.3.2.   Staffing and asset ownership	21,22
3.4. University Governance in Italy	22-24
Chapter 4: Comparative Educational Laws and Regulation	24
4.1. Higher Education Laws and regulation in Finland	24-26
4.2. Some focus points on Higher Education Laws and Regulation in Germany	26-29
4.3. Laws and Regulations Concerning Education of Italy	29
5. Challenges of Higher Education between Finland, Germany and Italy	29,30
6. Summary	30,31

Introduction:

The European Union (EU) is a politico-economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It covers an area of 4,324,782 km, with an estimated population of over 508 million.[1] The European Union has established a single market across the territory of all its members representing 508 million citizens. In 2014, the EU had a combined GDP of 18.640 trillion international dollars, a 20% share of global gross domestic product by purchasing power parity (PPP). Education is one of those things which are considered pretty important throughout the European Union. But it still remains that not every country does it the same and indeed some countries are better at it than others. In the EU people often assume that their own education systems are the best, but that may not actually be true.[2]

The Education Index, published with the UN's Human Development Index in 2008, based on data from 2006, lists Finland as 0.993, amongst the highest in the world.[3] Finland has consistently ranked high in the PISA study, which compares national educational systems internationally, although in the recent years Finland has been displaced from the very top.[4] Finland education system is a number one among the Europe and worldwide 5^th position.[5]

According to the OECD Education at a Glance 2014, Germany is one of the few countries in which unemployment rates have declined continuously, and across all education levels, between 2005 and 2010 and between 2010 and 2012. German has average standard education system comparison with European countries. German education system is 12^th through the world ranking and 7th in Europe. German universities are among one of the world’s best institutes and a powerhouse to impart education in Europe. [6]

According to the OECD education Index 2015, Italy is one of the lower education systems in Europe. In Italy, 57% of adults aged 25-64 have completed upper secondary education, below the OECD average of 75%. Italy only 17% of 35-44 year-olds have a tertiary qualification against an OECD average of 34%.[7] Many students in Italy are not engaged with university and arrive late, skip classes and days of university thus loosing valuable learning opportunities. Socio-economically disadvantaged students are particularly likely to display low levels of engagement.[8]

Above this reason I have selected three country’s Finland, Germany and Italy for proper observation of higher education in EU. In my whole paper there are four chapters for the first chapter, I analyze global market of university education among those three countries. In chapter 2, I compared whole higher education system between Finland, Garman and Italy. Therefore, chapter 3, I try to focus on educational management structure and operations of university among three countries. At the end, I discuss bullet point on every country’s higher education laws and regulation. Finally I summarized all comparison to show why one education system is better than others.

Chapter 1 Globalization of Educational Markets:

1.1.Globalization and Higher Education:

Higher education is focused by globalization of increasing international interconnected ness that combines economic, cultural and social changes. University education trains the highly skilled workforce and contributes to the research base and innovation capacity that increasing knowledge-based global economy. Higher education fosters mutual understanding and helps to build global networks for the future. At the same time, cross-border flows of ideas, students, faculty and financing, coupled with developments in information and communication technology, are changing the environment for higher education. This implies both increased collaboration and competition between countries and institutions on a global scale[9].

1.2.Globalization and Higher education Market in Finland:

Finland is a country in which detailed data on the internationalization of higher education are readily available and have been collected for a number of years. This is especially the case for student mobility and study abroad, as the Centre for International Mobility (CIMO) collects related statistics at the national level and on an annual basis, and since the uptake of mobility has financial consequences for institutions, the coverage of data is generally very good. CIMO also analyses data for degree-seeking international students and produces related reports and statistical analyses.

1.2.1.      

Student mobility and study abroad:

In the 1990s, the number of outgoing students grew very rapidly, but with the introduction of courses in English and the promotion of related services, the number of incoming students began to increase, to the extent that today the number of incoming students exceeds those going out.

In 2013 the overall number of outbound students from Higher education was 10189, representing a 35% increase compared to 2003 (7555), whereas the number of incoming students was 9739, up 47 % from 2003. Both numbers are record highs, but in the case of outgoing students the figures have remained fairly stable since 2010.

Erasmus represents 53% of all student mobility, followed by HEIs' non-Erasmus bilateral agreements (20%), free movers (13%) and Nord plus (5%). As a result, Europe obviously dominates, with 6693 Finnish students going to a European destination (65 % of the outgoing total) and 7795 European students coming to Finland (80 % of the incoming total). The popularity of Asia both as a destination and as a source country has increased significantly. To foster international student exchange, some institutions have made or are in the process of making participation mandatory, or virtually obligatory. It is worth noting that in student exchange and study abroad female students are markedly over-represented.

1.2.2.      

Degree-seeking international students

Presently there are some 20000 international students enrolled in Finland University and universities of applied science. In ten years the number of students has more than doubled, compared with 7900 in 2003. The proportion of international students with respect to the total student population is 6.1% at universities and 6.9% at universities of applied science. Again, this proportion has more than doubled in ten years. It should be noted that there are significant differences across fields of study, with engineering having by far the most students, both in terms of numbers and also proportionally, and approximately 30% of current students are international.

1.2.3.      International staff

The number of international staff in Finnish HEIs has not been tracked for many years, but since this number is an indicator in the universities' current funding model, a concentrated effort has been initiated. On the whole, universities of applied science have far fewer international staff members than do universities, where researchers account for the majority, with very few administrative or support staff coming from abroad. Of a total of 18 100 academic staff members in Finnish universities in 2013, 3 700 (20%) were non-Finns. These numbers also include salaried doctoral students. The largest proportion of international staff members are at the postdoctoral phase.

1.2.4.      Researcher and teacher mobility

Some statistics are available at national level regarding researcher and teacher mobility, but their reliability and accuracy is somewhat suspect. Universities and universities of applied science, for instance, use differing definitions in these statistics. For universities there seems to be a trend toward a slight increase in outbound mobility of Finnish teachers and researchers, whereas the number of incoming visitors is stable or even declining. For the universities of applied science, the numbers of both incoming and outgoing teachers are declining. Whether these trends are a result of statistical inaccuracies, funding issues or something else is quite unknown. It may also be the case that the use of ICT has reduced the need for travelling.

1.2.5.     

Research and innovation activities are becoming international:

The production and wide-ranging utilization of research information is increasingly a collective and international objective. During the last ten years, the number of internationally co-written publications in the world tripled and the share of international patents of all patents almost doubled. Success in competition for experts requires that research and innovation environments are of high quality and are internationally well known. Quality attracts quality. High-quality teaching and research attract competent people, knowledge, enterprises, investors and make them put down their roots in the operating areas of the higher education institutions. [10]

1.3.Globalization of Educational Markets in Germany:

International activities in higher education tend to have different spatial, political, economic, cultural and academic scopes. In Germany, we could discover for many years at least the following pattern:

·         Student and staff mobility is most frequent in German-speaking neighboring countries, i.e. Austria and the German-speaking regions of Switzerland. Cooperation and mobility is so much a matter of procedure that most of the complications usually associated with international cooperation and mobility do not hold true here at all.

·         Cooperation and mobility on more or less equal terms with other market-oriented economically advanced countries have been well established for several decades. Most staff and student mobility was arranged individually, possibly with some academic and administrative assistance by the university and by scholarships for advanced students and fellowships for scholars available through national agencies.

·         As far as other countries of the world are concerned, various factors played a role. German higher education became very popular among students of a small number of countries, for example, Greece, Turkey, Iran, and Indonesia, for some time, South Korea as well. Developing aid set some priorities. By and large, one could say that cooperation and mobility was more pronounced in countries not having close ties to the United Kingdom and France as colonial carry-overs.

 Until the 1980s, German universities did not consider their international activities as strongly
intertwined or as a challenge for a general strategy. They were linked, if at all, through a few common services provided by an international office, usually called Akademisches Auslandsamt. Worldwide search for new knowledge, foreign language proficiency, cosmopolitan values, etc. were widely spread at the most academically demanding sectors of the German higher education system without any specific reference to international “policies” or “strategies”. Increasing European cooperation and mobility in the course of the 1980s and 1990s triggered off the notion that international links should be addressed and supported through targeted action.[11]

1.3.1.      Studying and training, living in Germany

According to the report „Wissenschaft weltoffen“there were 2014 more than 300.000 international students in German universities. Germany is being very popular especially among students from countries outside the EU. In recent years the number of internationals students in Germany has increased continuously. According to the actual report‘’Wissenschaft weltoffen’’around 301.350 international students were enrolled in German universities in 2014. The share of international students has therefore increased to 11.5 percent (2013: 11.1 percent). Among them 107.000 people decided to start studying in Germany in 2014.

China is still the country of origin with the majority of international students (28.381). Like in 2013, the second biggest group has Russian origins (11.126). The former third-placed country Austria (9.305) was replaced by India (9.372) in 2014. Around 34.2 percent of the international students are enrolled in a bachelor degree while 30.3 percent are matriculated in a master degree. Especially engineering sciences (26.7%) and law, economic and social science (24.4%) are the most popular degree programs among international students.[12]

1.3.2.      Branding:

Over the last decade, internationalization has become one of the major strategic tools for universities worldwide to successfully position themselves in search of the best students and the offer of highly attractive academic programs. The institution's attractiveness is playing an important role to increase visibility, to reputation and to secure share of resources. Hence, marketing and branding are at the core of institutional strategies for universities in the UK, in Australia and in the USA, followed by Canada and Germany as fairly new and quite successful major players on a global scale. Senior experts from these countries have been invited who are in charge of institutional policies; they represent universities that are to some extent comparable to German public higher education institutions, and that face similar challenges.[13]

1.3.3.      Research global competition:

Germany is very interested in international cooperation and exchange, and it supports not only its universities and non-university research institutes, but also its small and medium-sized enterprises when they engage in research cooperation with international partners. Students can also benefit from this as a cooperation partner. First points of contact can also be, for example, the German Houses of Research and Innovation (DWIHs) in Moscow, New Delhi, New York, São Paulo and Tokyo as well as the German Science Centre in Cairo. They provide information about research and funding opportunities for international collaborations and research stays.

The Research Explorer directory of the German Research Foundation (DFG) and the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) offers details of over 23,000 institutes at German universities and non-university research institutions searchable by geographical location, subject and other criteria.[14]

1.3.4.      Ranking of higher education in Germany:

According to the new ranking by the prestigious magazine Times Higher Education (THE), Freie Universität has improved by world standards and is currently ranked at 72 among universities. As announced by THE in London, the university moved up nine places since last year, and it is one of the five best universities in Germany. Europe-wide it is ranked 24 (last year: 28). The evaluations according to subject groups will be published during the next few weeks.

The five best German universities in the world, according to the THE Ranking are Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (rank 29), Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg (rank 37), Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin (rank 49), Technische Universität München (rank 53), and Freie Universität Berlin (rank 72). Since 2011, Freie Universität has improved in the world ranking by 79 places, in the European ranking by 37 places, and nationwide by one place.[15]

1.3.5.      Germany student studying Abroad:

Current data from the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) points to a significant increase in the number of German students going abroad. The number of German students enrolled outside of Germany has increased by nearly 40% over the last two decades, from 34,000 in 1991 to 134,000 in 2011.

“Increasing international mobility among German students is a key objective of Germany’s higher education policy,” says DAAD’s Facts and figures on the international nature of studies and research in Germany 2013. [16]

1.3.6.      Free Movers:

International students who have organized their study abroad on their own (83%) are called free movers. While program participants from industrial countries are in the majority (41%) and participants from developing countries are in the minority (27%), when it comes to free movers, this ratio is reversed: the majority comes from developing countries (48%) and the minorities come from industrial countries (16%). The foreign scholarship students in Germany the ratio of free movers to program students is 40 to 60. [17]

1.4. Globalization and Higher Education Market in Italy:

Since there is no national system for data collection on internationalization, and only limited data appeared in the ANVUR 2013 report, it is difficult to obtain an overview of institutional strategies for internationalization. However, a 2012 Bologna Experts Seminar on 'Rethinking Internationalization' presented results from a survey, organized in collaboration with the Italian Rectors’ Conference (CRUI) that captured the state of internationalization strategies in 37 universities.

While the survey highlighted that the majority tended to develop short-term strategies with quantitative goals based on the national three-year planning cycles there were others that developed their own indicators such as partnerships (20%), foreign-language-taught degrees or joint programs (20%), international work experience (20%), research output (14%), visiting professors (4%), outgoing academic mobility (3%) and academics with international experience (3%), while others also looked at quality of services, mobility of academic staff and housing capacity.

Mobility remained the principal focus and objectives were integrating mobility into the curriculum (92%); international placements (83%); international research experience (75 %); and intensive programs (64%). The focus on the curriculum across the three levels was mainly to develop courses in English (78%), typically in collaboration with international universities or companies (72%). The majority (85%) declared that they were developing mechanisms to recruit students internationally, such as offering scholarships, discounted fees and dedicated support services. Internationalization of the academic community was also indicated as a priority through visiting professors (69 %) and recruitment of international academics, including Italians working abroad (64 %), but also through encouraging more outward short-term mobility (50 %).

Their strategic intentions point to an increase in the number of programs taught in English, whether on their own or in partnership with other institutions, and enhanced exchange programs and recruitment of international students. Internationalization of the curriculum in the Italian context appears to be understood principally as teaching in English or developing joint/double degrees and there is no specific mention made of online learning or virtual mobility. This may be due to an often negative perception of quality at the distance learning universities operating in Italy.

So the data suggest that Italian universities are becoming more international as they choose to align with international practices by teaching in English, recruiting international staff and students and enhancing their international research profile in order to position themselves more successfully. Italy does not currently fare well in international rankings, with only a small number of its universities appearing in the top 200 lists.

The Erasmus program has been the cornerstone of internationalization in Italian universities for many years. In terms of outgoing mobility, Italy ranked 4th in 2012-13 with 25 805 outgoing students and 5th in incoming mobility with 19 964 European students, which is just below half the number that choose Spain, ranked first both for incoming and outgoing mobility (European Commission, 2014a, 2014b).

In the period 2008-9 to 2011-12, there was a 32.92 % increase in the number of Italian Erasmus students, with a 10.3 % rise in the last year, even though only 1.51 % of students overall  participated in the program (Silvestri, 2012) (European Commission 2014a, 2014b). Academic staff mobility has also increased with 1 651 taking part in 2011-12, but numbers are low compared to other European countries. Italy attracts more academic staff than it sends, with 176 incoming staff for every 100 outgoing. There is a similar ratio for administrative staff, with 208 incoming for every 100 outgoing, although numbers reached 373 in 2011-12, representing an upward trend.

There is a trend of progressive growth in the numbers of international degree-seeking students, although Italy is still well below the OECD average. In 2000-1 there were only 5 509 students in the system, accounting for 1.9 % of the population, but by 2013-2014 this number had increased to 69 958 international students, representing 4.2 % of the total student population. The highest percentage (5.49 %) of international students is in master’s programmes, probably due to the number of courses offered in English, and overall 63.87 % chose to study in the north of Italy.

In 2013-14, 187 degree programs were offered in English with the vast majority being offered at master’s level. There were 167 master’s, nine integrated master’s (five years) in Medicine and one in Pharmacy, while only ten bachelor’s degree programs were offered in English. These programs are taught mainly by Italians since only 1 % of staff, as previously indicated, are international, but the planned reform measures aim to facilitate the hiring of international academics not only as a means to enhance the quality of education and research but also to position Italy more successfully in the global rankings. International degree-seeking students match migratory flows to Italy. 15.73 % are Albanian, 10.21 % are Chinese and 9.72 % are Romanian. At master’s level, the highest percentages of non-EU students are the Chinese at 13.87 % and Albanians at 11.01 %.

Given the strong concentration of international students in the north of Italy, it is interesting to look at the survey results from the regional industrial association of Lombardy (Assolombarda) on the state of internationalization at Lombard universities. The 2012-13 report highlighted that 17 000 international students had enrolled at one of the 12 universities in the previous five years, indicating a growth of 42 %. 80 % of these students were non-European. Credit mobility numbers were also up by 22 %, from 4 500 to 5 500, with students coming principally from Spain, the United States and China, while outgoing numbers rose dramatically by 49 % over the same five-year period to around 10 000.[18]

Chapter 2: Comparison of Education System

2.1. University Education System in Finland:

"Higher" or "university-level" education is defined more strictly in Finland than in many other countries. "Higher education" is offered by research institutions awarding the Master's, Licentiate, and Doctorate degrees. Institutions offering only programs corresponding to lower degrees, such as the bachelor's, are "vocational institutes" rather than "universities" or "institutions of higher education." The Finnish words yliopisto (e.g. Turun yliopisto, The University of Turku) and korkeakoulu (e.g. Lapin korkeakoulu, The University of Lapland) are both translated into English as "university."

The university calendar starts in early September, and includes two 14-week terms, with the first term completed in mid-December. The second term begins in mid-January and ends in May. The only official "in-term" vacation is a week at Easter, although it is not unusual for departments to have an unofficial winter holiday in February/March to coincide with the public school calendar.

2.1.1.   Admissions

Finnish university is highly competitive to an admission. One applies for admission directly into a specialized program of a university department. This is roughly equivalent to a U.S. student applying for admission into a "major" subject at the beginning of the third year of study. Admission is determined from an entrance examination to the department of choice plus scores from both one's lukio certificate and the national student examination. Despite the fact that Finland has more university students per capita than the other Nordic countries, only one third of each lukio cohort will gain admission to a university. There is no university tuition charge. Students pay only student union and health insurance fees, and may receive government-subsidized study loans and some grants.

2.1.2.   Program Structures and Degree Requirements

The basic Finnish university degree is the Master's. There is no formal lower degree, although a certificate corresponding to the former bachelors can be obtained at some universities after completing about 100-120 credits (2-4 years of study). There are various names for the Master's degree in the different disciplines, often abbreviated to two or three letters, such as FK, HK, KK, KTK, VTK and YK. "FK" is short for filosofian kandidaatti, or "Master of Arts"; "YK" is yhteiskuntatieteiden kandidaatti, or "Master of Social Sciences."

From 160-250 "study weeks" opintoviikot of credit is required for the Master's degree. Requirements are divided into courses in General Studies (Yleisopinnot), Subject Studies (Aineopinnot, i.e. courses in or required by the student's major and minor fields), and Advanced Specialized Studies (Syventävät opinnot), largely independent research and the writing of a Master's thesis and related seminars.

Between 5 and 7 years is the average time to obtain the Master's degree, but combining one's studies with part-time work and the starting of a family often lengthens the time required. However, 10 years is considered the maximum time to complete one's Master's degree without special dispensation. Beyond the Master's one can study for the Licentiate degree (lisensiaatti), a sort of junior doctorate, and upon defense of a dissertation the Licentiate holder may be awarded a Doctorate (tohtori). Studies toward the licentiate or doctorate are mostly of an independent nature; there are as yet few organized doctoral programs resembling those in American academia.

2.1.3.   Academic Credits

Academic credits in Finnish universities are based on the idea of "study weeks" (opintoviikot). A study week is calculated as "40 hours of student work," roughly parallel to a 40-hour working week. Study weeks may be awarded for a lecture series, a "book exam," independent research, or other combinations of 40 hours of student input. For example, a course with 28 hours of contact lectures, and evaluation by a student paper, may allow 12 hours for the writing of the paper. This would total 40 hours, or one study week of credit.

Although procedure may vary from one university or faculty to another, the following is typical for a 160 study week Master's curriculum in the Humanities. First, there are the faculties own General Studies, with compulsory and optional courses ranging from 9-30 study weeks. These are usually courses in philosophy of science, man in relation to nature and society, development of western culture, and so on. The student must also demonstrate written and oral competency in several languages. Finnish is compulsory as the second national language.

The remainder of the FK curriculum is Subject and Advanced Specialized Studies. Subject Studies include about 70-80 credits of required and elective courses from the student's major subject. Students must also choose first and second subsidiary subjects from departments in their own or another faculty. After Subject Studies, the student moves to Advanced Specialized courses, about 30-40 credits, of which 16-20 are awarded for a thesis (pro gradu) in one's major subject.

2.1.4.   Examinations and Grading

Both faculties and departments have set examination dates, listed on their official calendars. Students register for faculty exams by submitting an examination envelope, 7-10 days in advance, with their name, address, social security number, and other details as well as the books read for the exam. On arrival at the exam, the student gets the envelope back with questions inside. On leaving the exam, one's identity must be proved. The procedure may vary in different universities. Exams are also held at the end of lecture series for students who have attended the lectures.

Examination results are posted on faculty and department bulletin boards. The grading is usually numerically from 3 to 1 (3 being highest) or alternately "ET" (erinomainen tieto, or "excellent"), "HT" (hyvä tieto, or "good") and "TT" (tyydyttävä tieto, "satisfactory"). Some couses may be pass/fail, in which case only the "pass" is marked. Grades are entered into the university computer, in which each student is recorded by name and social security number. In addition to the computer register, students in most universities also have personal study books, in which an instructor enters each course or exam grade and verifies it with his signature.

Only passing grades will appear in the study book or transcript. Failures are not recorded. If a student fails an examination or is otherwise not satisfied with the grade, he or she has the right to retake the exam an unlimited number of times on dates set by the examiner. If the student passes, the grade is then recorded in the study book and the computerized records.[19]

2.2. Higher Education System of Germany:

The tertiary sector includes, first and foremost, the various different types of institution of higher education and, to a limited extent, establishments outside the higher education system. Thus, in addition to institutions of higher education, some Länder also have Berufsakademien, which offer an alternative to higher education in the form of courses qualifying to practise a profession for those who have completed the upper level of secondary education and gained a higher education entrance qualification. The Fachschulen and the Fachakademien in Bayern are also part of the tertiary sector.

2.2.1.   Types of Higher Education Institutions

As per the 2013 summer semester, Germany had a total of 392 state-maintained and state-recognized institutions of higher education, which are of the following types:

·         Universities and equivalent institutions of higher education

(Technische Hochschulen/Technische Universitäten, Pädagogische Hochschulen, theological colleges et al)

·         Colleges of art and music

·         Fachhochschulen (Hochschulen für angewandte Wissenschaften/Hochschulen für angewandte Forschung)

In addition, Germany's tertiary sector also includes either state-run or state-recognised Berufsakademien in some Länder. The Fachschulen and the Fachakademien in Bayern are also part of the tertiary sector.

2.2.2.   Higher education entrance qualification:

 Admission to any course of study at universities and equivalent higher education institutions generally requires the Allgemeine Hochschulreife or the Fachgebundene Hochschulreife. The former entitles school-leavers to study at any institution of higher education in any subject or field, while the latter permits entry only into specified courses of studies. The Allgemeine Hochschulreife or Fachgebundene Hochschulreife is obtained after 12 or 13 ascending school years on completion of the gymnasiale Oberstufe (see chapter 6.7.) or certain courses of vocational education at upper secondary level (see chapter 6.10.).

The Allgemeine Hochschulreife can also be acquired at Abendgymnasien, i.e. evening schools for working people, and Kollegs, i.e. full-time schools for those who have completed vocational education and training. Other options are the Abitur examination for non-pupils, persons who are recognised as having a right to asylum or employed persons of particular intellectual ability. In addition to the Hochschulreife, in certain subjects the applicant’s aptitude is determined through a separate test procedure. This applies particularly to sport and the arts.

2.2.3.   Admission to higher education institutions:

 With the entry into force of the State Treaty of the Länder on the establishment of a joint institution for higher education admission (Staatsvertrag der Länder über die Errichtung einer gemeinsamen Einrichtung für Hochschulzulassung) on 1 May 2010 the Central Office for the Allocation of Study Places (Zentralstelle für die Vergabe von Studienplätzen – ZVS) became the Foundation for Higher Education Admission (Stiftung für Hochschulzulassung – SfH). The SfH is a service facility for admission to higher education institutions that can be used by the institutions of higher education and applicants alike. It supports applicants in their choice of study place and higher education institutions with the admissions procedure. Under the State Treaty it has the task, on the one hand, of carrying out the central allocation procedure for courses subject to nationwide quotas on admission. On the other hand, the Foundation for Higher Education 154 Admission supports those higher education institutions using its services in implementing admission procedures with local admission restrictions.

2.2.4.   Accreditation of study courses:

The aim of accreditation is to guarantee standards in terms of subject and content, compliance with structural guidelines and examination of the professional relevance of the qualifications through a formalized and objectively verifiable procedure. Accreditation can also be carried out in the form of system accreditation. The focus of system accreditation is the internal quality assurance system of a higher education institution. A positive system accreditation certifies that the higher education institution’s quality assurance system in the field of study and teaching is sufficient to guarantee the achievement of the qualifications objectives and the quality standards of the study courses. For accreditation of Bachelor’s and Master’s study courses the Standing Conference has set up an independent Accreditation Council (Akkreditierungsrat) acting on behalf of all Länder which, since 2005, operates as a foundation under public law.

These serve as a framework for the planning and conception of study courses. The structural guidelines of October 2003, most recently amended in February 2010, refer, amongst others, to the structure and length of study. They stipulate that Bachelor’s study courses, as study courses which lead to a first degree qualifying for entry into a profession, must provide the academic foundation, methodological skills and qualifications related to the professional field corresponding to the profile of the higher education institution and the study course, and generally ensure a broad academic qualification. Bachelor’s and Master’s study courses are provided with a credit point system which is based upon the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS).

2.2.5.   Teaching Methods:

 Teaching methods at universities and equivalent institutions of higher education Classes take the form of lectures, seminars, practical exercises, work placements and study trips. The main function of the lectures is to impart general and basic knowledge about the various fields of study. The seminars afford an opportunity to deal in depth with a more narrowly defined topic. Practical exercises and practical’s, meanwhile, provide the opportunity to develop the theoretical knowledge gained in a practical manner. The Federation and Länder are promoting the use of new media (multimedia and teleteaching) in the teaching offered which is continuously expanded.

The classes are normally designed for students of a specific degree course and at a particular stage in their studies. However, interdisciplinary classes have been gaining in significance, especially in the more advanced stages. So-called Graduiertenkollegs (providing university graduate training programmes) for the promotion of young scholars, for instance, are also frequently organised along interdisciplinary lines.[20]

2.2.6.      

The structure of Higher Education Studies:

Diagram of Higher Education System in Germany

Resource of this image is, http://ecahe.eu/w/index.php/Higher_education_system_in_Germany

2.2.7.      

Grading Scheme

The grading scheme in Germany usually comprises five levels (with numerical equivalents; intermediate grades may be given): "Sehr Gut" (1) = Very Good; "Gut" (2) = Good; "Befriedigend" (3) = Satisfactory; "Ausreichend" (4) = Sufficient; "Nicht ausreichend" (5) = Non-Sufficient/Fail. The minimum passing grade is "Ausreichend" (4). Verbal designations of grades may vary in some cases and for doctoral degrees. In addition institutions partly already use an ECTS grading scheme.

2.3.      Higher Education System in Italy:

Article 33 of the Italian Constitution recognizes the right of universities and higher education academies to carry out their activities autonomously within the limits set by law. Both public and private organizations and legal entities have the right to establish educational establishments. Therefore, there are both state-run and non-state higher education institutions.

In order to enter higher education students must be holders of an upper secondary school-leaving certificate (five-year programs). Within their jurisdictions, the regions are responsible for ensuring the right to universities studies for students through the provision of meal services and housing, grants and scholarships, counseling and guidance, and health care services.

Tertiary education is offered at universities and non-university higher education institutions. The latter include higher institutes of physical education (Istituti Superiori di Educazione Fisica) and some specialized higher education institutes and schools, such as the Istituto orientale, the Istituto Superiore Navale of Naples and the Scuola Normale Superiore of Pisa. Furthermore, Law No. 144 of 17 May 1999 has established the system of higher technical education and training. Programs offered at this level range from a minimum of two semesters to maximum of four semesters, or not less than 1,200 and not more than 2,400 hours. The curricula focus on interdisciplinary and technical-vocational basic skills. Enterprise stages and training apprenticeships are compulsory for not less than the 30% of the total number of hours.

After the reform of the higher education system implemented from 1999, university education is mainly organized according to a three-cycle structure.

·         First-cycle degree programs take three years to complete,

·         Second-cycle programs require an additional two years,

·         And third-cycle programs leading to the award of a doctoral degree (research doctorate) require a minimum of three years of studies.

For holders of first- and second-cycle degrees universities can also offer master’s degree programs, usually requiring one additional year of full-time study (or 60 credits, one credit corresponding to 25 hours of academic work), as well as programs leading to the award of a diploma of specialization and normally requiring two or three years of studies in the case of first-cycle degree holders, and one year of study for second-cycle degree holders. In 2006/07, almost all students (98.5%) were enrolled in the two-cycle degree system in line with the Bologna process. Universities and polytechnics also offer long-cycle programs in the fields of medicine and surgery (lasting six years), and veterinary, dentistry, pharmacy, architecture and law (lasting five years).

The National Drama Academy offers two types of four-year program with compulsory attendance (a three-year course with a fourth year of specialization). One course is for training actors and the other for training art directors. In order to be awarded the relevant diploma, students must successfully sit a final examination. The National Dance Academy offers an eight-year program for training dancers and a subsequent three-year specialization for training soloists, teachers, choreographers and dance composers. Higher institutes for applied arts, established on an experimental basis, promote the progress of design, and teaching the aesthetic and scientific culture necessary for practicing the relevant professions.

University education has been re-transferred under the authority of the Ministry of Universities and Research in 2007. In addition to public funds, State universities are allowed to receive financing and contributions for research and activities from other sources. Additional income for the university comes from fees paid by students for services. Private universities can receive funds from local organizations, associations or foundations. Universities have a considerable degree of autonomy in the management of funds and staff, in the determination of fees and contributions, and in the evaluation of their own activities.

External evaluation of the higher education system is under the responsibility of two bodies: the National Committee for the Evaluation of the University System (CNVSU) and the Committee for Research Evaluation (Comitato di indirizzo per la valutazione della ricerca). The CNVSU determines the general criteria for the evaluation of universities and higher education institutes in the field of the arts and prepares an annual report on the evaluation of higher education.

In 2004/05 there were 129 higher education institutes in the field of the arts, including twenty fine arts academies, fifty-eight music conservatories, and four higher institutes for applied arts. In the same year, the total enrolment (including students in pre-university education courses) was 68,840 students and the total number of teaching staff was 9,241 (of whom 76.2% with a contract of indeterminate duration). [21]

Chapter 3 Introduction to the theory of Educational Management:

3.1. Educational Management:

Educational management is a field of study and practice concerned with the operation of educational organizations. There is no single generally accepted definition of the subject because its development has drawn heavily on several more firmly established disciplines, including sociology, political science, economics and general management. Interpretations drawn from different disciplines necessarily emphasize diverse aspects of educational management and these varying approaches are reflected in subsequent chapters of this book. Bolam (1999: 194)[22] defines educational management as ‘an executive function for carrying out agreed policy’. He differentiates management from educational leadership which has ‘at its core the responsibility for policy formulation and, where appropriate, organizational transformation’ (ibid.: 194). Writing from an Indian perspective, Sapre (2002: 102)[23] states that ‘management is a set of activities directed towards efficient and effective utilization of organizational resources in order to achieve organizational goals’.

The present author has argued consistently (Bush, 1986; 1995; 1999; 2003)[24] that educational management should be centrally concerned with the purpose or aims of education. These are the subject of continuing debate and disagreement, but the principle of linking management activities and tasks to the aims and objectives of schools or colleges remains vital. These purposes or goals provide the crucial sense of direction which 1 8721 restyle 3.qxd 09/08/2010 17:15 Page 1 should underpin the management of educational institutions. Management is directed at the achievement of certain educational objectives. Unless this link between purpose and management is clear and close, there is a danger of managerialism a stress on procedures at the expense of educational purpose and values’ (Bush, 1999: 240). Managerialism places the emphasis on managerial efficiency rather than the aims and purposes of education (Newman and Clarke, 1994;)[25] Gunter, 1997)[26]. ‘Management possesses no super-ordinate goals or values of its own. The pursuit of efficiency may be the mission statement of management – but this is efficiency in the achievement of objectives which others define’ (Newman and Clarke, 1994: 29).

3.2. Higher Education Management in Finland:

The management and administration of Finnish higher education is characterized by a bipartite organizational structure: the elective bodies representing the university community on the one hand, and the appointed administrative bureaucracy, on the other. In principle all academic and policy decision-making functions are relegated to a hierarchical system of administrative boards and councils, usually corresponding to the overall university, faculty and department levels of responsibility.

Generally they are composed of a fixed quota of representatives of three sectors of the university community: 1) ordinary and associate professors, 2) other academic and administrative university personnel, and 3) undergraduate students. Council or board members are elected usually for a period of three years by their respective constituencies.

 Leadership in these governing organs, i.e. faculty deans and department heads, is elected by the respective councils. The only important exception is the highest governing organ, the university government, which is headed by the Rector, and automatically includes the Vice Rector as voting members. The Rector and the Vice Rector are elected by separate, varying types of electoral colleges, which are also constituted on the basis of the above-mentioned tripartite representation.

Parallel to this academic power structure is the administrative managerial hierarchy, whose function is essentially planning and implementation of the decisions of the different councils, as well as the day-to-day management of the administrative infrastructure of the university. The administrative director as well as upper level administrative management positions (e.g. Registrar, Bursar, etc.) is filled through open competition, as are all civil service jobs in the country.

Many departments have "Docents" (dosentti). Docentships provide a way for departments to offer occasional specialized courses, or to enhance staff reputation by appointing as a Docent an outstanding scholar who is tenured by another institution. Most departments also have "senior assistants" (yliassistentti) and/or "assistants" (assistentti) who are non-tenured, appointed for 3 or 5-year periods which may sometimes be renewed. Most assistantships are intended as research slots to help junior scholars complete a licentiate or doctorate, Depending on the individual, department, and length of service, however, they may range from "general factotum" to the equivalent of an Assistant Professorship.

Most foundation teaching in Humanities departments is done by Lecturers (lehtori), who are tenured. There are also Instructors tuntiopettaja), who are paid by the hour (tunti) without tenure, and "Full-time Instructors" (päätoiminen) who receive a monthly salary, have semi-permanent tenure, and a teaching load equivalent to that of a Lecturer.

Professorships, associate professorships, and docentships require the PhD degree as a basic qualification. Assistants, lecturers, and instructors are usually required to have a Master's as the minimum qualification, although there is increasing pressure to raise the minimum qualification to a licentiate. Exemptions from these requirements are possible, but Finnish academic bureaucracy is renowned for strict adherence to formal paper qualifications. [27]

In addition, on the borderline between these two sectors are the directors of the various service and research institutes ranging from the university library and computer centers to specialized research institutes (e.g. in the social sciences) and experimental stations. Although there is some variation among the seventeen higher education institutions here discussed, the typical organizational structure of higher education institution management.[28]

3.3. University Management in Germany:

3.3.1. Governance and management:

According to the basic principle of the institutional autonomy, the institutions of higher education have the right to self-governance. In addition to financing higher education, the Länder set the legal framework for this institutional self-governance.

Higher education institutions are governed by a full-time head, a president or a rector. This function may also be carried out by an elected presidential committee consisting of the president, the vice presidents and the chancellor (chief administrator) ex officio. The chancellor takes care of the administrative matters of the institution as a whole and is in particular responsible for the budget.

According to the tradition of corporate governance, there are collegial bodies at different levels of the institutions that have the right to participate in academic matters (senate and assembly at central level and department councils at decentral level). In the past decade, the political awareness grew that, besides the autonomy in academic matters, autonomy with respect to the internal form of organisation and the use of financial resources is vital to improve the effectiveness and competitive ability of higher education institutions.[29] This implies a management that is competent and capable of make decisions. A turning point to a more professional institutional management is characterised by the following reforms which have taken place in recent years:

·         at central level: implementation of a cooperative university management (presidential committee) with different departments (e.g. for research, teaching, international affairs) under the responsibility of vice presidents (vice rectors) and strengthening of the management,

·         limitation of functions of the senate to matters of principle and largely shifting of decisionmaking authority from the senate to the presidential committee,  introduction of higher education boards with mainly advisory competences (composed of external experts of high public standing from higher education institutions, research and economy), 

·         change of the employment status of the chancellor from an appointment of life into a term of office of 8 years in most of the Länder, 

·         at department level: longer terms of office for the deans and strengthening of their responsibilities against the collegial bodies by limiting their tasks to matters of principle and a clear assignment between executive and monitoring functions.

The basic organizational units of the institutions are departments which are aligned with the traditional structuring of subjects. As research often requires cross-border cooperation of subjects and methods, new structures across the traditional structuring like in-house research areas or the collaborative research centers of the DFG are built up. .

3.3.2. Staffing and asset ownership

According to the legal position of universities and other higher education institutions (cp. 1.2) the staffing scheme is part of the Länder budget. Recently, some flexibility has been granted. This varies from Land to Land and will be described in chapter 3. The salaries are fixed by collective agreements and do not differ within the public service.

Under the Framework Act for Higher Education, full-time academic staff can be divided up into the following groups: professors, scientific and creative arts assistants, senior assistants and senior engineers, lecturers, scientific and creative arts staff, teaching staff for special tasks.[30]

The great majority of academic staff are appointed as employees. Civil servants only form a limited part of the academic staff in universities and other higher education institutions. Professors are usually appointed by the ministry responsible for science in the particular Land as civil servants (sometimes at first with limited and then with unlimited tenure). Some Länder have assigned all responsibilities in staffing matters to the higher education institutions (cp. 3).

Higher education institutions in Germany generally do not own property. Land and buildings belong to the respective Länder which are, in return, responsible for maintenance expense. Merely the operating of the buildings is budgeted and administered by the institutions. Some new steps to more autonomy of higher education’s institutions in this field will be explained in chapter 3 (Niedersachsen, Rheinland-Pfalz). Investment in construction and reconstruction above a threshold of 1.5 million Euros is financed jointly by Bund and Länder (cp. 1.2) [31]

3.4. University Governance in Italy:

According to the principle of university autonomy, each university may draw up its own statute and regulations by rectoral decree. Each statute states the regulations governing management, teaching and research within the institution.

·         Rettore In state institutions, the Rector are elected among full professors and are the legal representative. The Rector chairs the Academic Senate and the Board of Directors, executes their decisions, supervises the general running of all university structures and services, is in charge of disciplinary matters, draws up agreements for external collaboration, and plans all university teaching and research activities. In non state institutions different rules may apply.

·         Senato Accademico the Academic Senate is made up the Rector, the Faculty Deans and other representatives of the academic community elected according to the statute. It establishes the general guidelines for activities and plans university development. It approves the university regulations, coordinates teaching activities and has the authority to plan, coordinate and control university autonomy.

·         Consiglio di Amministrazione the Board of Directors supervises all administrative, personnel and financial matters, and approves the budget. It is made up of the Rector, the Head of Administration and other representatives of the academic and external business community as laid down in the statute.

·         Other bodies Each university autonomously decides the other bodies that are present in the university e.g. [32]

The main advisory bodies for university education are the National University Council, comprising representatives of rectors, university staff and students, and the National Council of University Students. On the subject of the right to study, the Minister asks the opinion of the National Council for the Right to University Studies, while National Council for Science and Technology is the body through which the scientific community contributes to the definition of policies on scientific and technological research. The Rectors’ Conference gives its opinion on draft decrees prepared by the Minister concerning the objectives of the university system and the allocation of financial resources.

Each university is divided into a certain number of faculties which carry out administrative and scientific-educational activities, and issue one or more degrees or diplomas, corresponding to the various courses of study provided. The faculty committee (comprising the dean, the permanent professors and researcher representatives) has programming and coordinating functions. Representatives of students may also take part in the meetings when the issues discussed concern their interests more closely. The departments, established by the Presidential Decree of 1980, promote research activities in a specific field of study and have their own structure with financial and managerial autonomy. The department committee, chaired by the head of department, comprises professors and researchers, representatives of the non-teaching staff, and students. This committee makes decisions regarding research and teaching activities.

The Rector implements the decisions taken by the Senate, a collegiate body with decision-making responsibilities on educational-scientific subjects and issues of general interest, and the Administrative Board, responsible for the administrative, economic and financial management of the university. Instruction at the university level is provided by the following categories of teaching staff: full professors; associate professors; contract professors; researchers; and lecturers. Full and associate professors and researchers are employed as civil servants, and are appointed on the basis of a competitive selection and recruitment process.

In addition to public funds, State universities are allowed to receive financing and contributions for research and activities from other sources. Additional income for the university comes from fees paid by students for services (laboratories and libraries). Private universities can receive funds from local organizations, associations or foundations. Universities have a considerable degree of autonomy in the management of funds and staff, in the determination of fees and contributions, and in the evaluation of their own activities.[33]

Chapter 4: Comparative Educational Laws and Regulation:

4.1. Higher Education Laws and regulation in Finland:

According to Section 2: Mission:

1. The mission of the universities is to promote free research and academic and artistic education, to provide higher education based on research, and to educate students to serve their country and humanity. In carrying out their mission, the universities must promote lifelong learning, interact with the surrounding society and promote the impact of research findings and artistic activities on society.

2. The universities must arrange their activities so as to assure a high international standard in research, education and teaching in conformity with ethical principles and good scientific practices.

According to the Section 3: Autonomy:

1. The universities shall have autonomy with a view to securing the freedom of higher academic and art education. Autonomy entails the right to decision making in matters belonging to internal administration.

2. In the drafting of legislation concerning them, the universities shall have an opportunity to give their opinion on the matter.

According to the Section 4: Membership in the university community

1. The university community comprises the teaching and research personnel, other staff and students.

According to the Section 5: Legal capacity of public universities

1. The public universities are independent legal persons.

2. The public universities may undertake commitments, obtain rights in their own name and possess movable and immovable property. A university may pursue business activities which support the performance of the mission referred to in Section 2.

3. The public universities shall be liable for their commitments with their own funds and have the rights to pursue and defend litigation in court.

According to the Section 6: Freedom of research, arts and teaching:

1. The universities shall have freedom of research, art and teaching. However, a teacher must comply with the statutes and regulations issued concerning teaching arrangements.

2. Instruction in the universities shall be public. For well-founded reasons, access to teaching may be restricted.

According to the Section 7: Degrees and other education and the degree structure: 1. in the universities it is possible to study for lower and higher university degrees and for academic, artistic and professional postgraduate degrees. The universities may also provide continuing professional education and Open University education.

2. The higher university degree is taken after the completion of the lower university degree or a corresponding education. In fields to be enacted by Government Decree, education for the higher university degree may be organised without the inclusion of a separate lower university degree where appropriate in terms of the professional demands of the field. The academic, artistic and professional postgraduate degree is taken after the completion of the higher university degree or a corresponding education.

3. Further provisions pertaining to the degrees awarded by the universities, the objectives of the degrees, the structure of the studies and other study requirements, and the degrees to be conferred by each university (educational responsibility) shall be enacted by Government Decree. Provisions pertaining to the status of university degrees in the system of higher education degrees shall be enacted by Government Decree. Provisions pertaining to a more explicit distribution of educational responsibilities among the universities, to fields and programmes of specialisation, and to the specialisation fields and programmes on offer in each university shall be enacted by Ministry of Education decree based on the proposal of the university.

According to the Section 8: Free education: 1. Education leading to a university degree and entrance examinations relating to student admission shall be free of charge for the student, unless otherwise provided in this Act. 4

2. A person applying to education other than that given in Finnish or Swedish may be required to take a fee-charging international test. For activities other than those referred to in subsection 1 the university may charge fees. Further provisions concerning fees shall be enacted by Government Decree in conformity with the provisions concerning the cost price of transactions under public law in the Act on Criteria for Charges Payable to the State (150/1992).

3. If the fee chargeable to a student provided for in this Act has not been paid by the due date, it is possible to collect annual interest for late payment from the due date onwards in accordance with the provisions of the Interest Act (633/1982). The payment may be recovered by an enforcement order without a court decision as provided in the Act on the Enforcement of Taxes and Charges (706/2007).  

According to the Section 11: Languages of instruction and examination: 1. The languages of instruction and examination in the University of Helsinki, the Academy of Fine Arts, Sibelius Academy and the Theatre Academy shall be Finnish and Swedish. The language of instruction and examination in Aalto University shall be governed by the provisions on the language of instruction and examination of its constituent Schools in Section 9 of the Universities Act of 1997 (645/1997). The language of instruction and examination of Åbo Akademi University, the Swedish School of Economics and Business Administration, and the Swedish School of Social Science of the University of Helsinki shall be Swedish. The language of instruction in other universities shall be Finnish.

2. In addition, the university may decide to use a language other than that referred to in subsection 1 as a language of instruction and examination.  [34]

4.2. Some focus points on Higher Education Laws and Regulation in Germany:

According to the Section 8: Reform of higher education

The institutions of higher education shall have the permanent task of reviewing and developing, in cooperation with the competent government authorities, the content and form of courses of study in the light of developments in the arts and sciences and of the practical requirements and changes necessary in the various professions.

According to the Section 9: Coordination of study and examination regulations , The Federal Government and the Länder governments shall jointly ensure that fundamental and structural questions regarding the range of available courses of study are addressed, due consideration being given to developments in the arts and sciences, in professional practice and in the system of higher education. (2) The Länder shall jointly ensure that the equivalence of corresponding course and examination credits and degrees and the possibility of transferring to other institutions of higher education are guaranteed. (3) The institutions of higher education and experts from professional life shall be involved in the performance of the tasks referred to in paragraphs 1 and 2 above.

According to the Section 15: Examinations and system of credit points, As a rule, a course of study shall be completed by an academic, state or ecclesiastical examination. In courses of study which have a standard period of at least four years, an intermediate examination (Zwischenprüfung) shall be held. Tests may also be conducted as an integral part of the course of study. As a rule, passing the intermediate examination shall be a prerequisite for advancement from the general stage to the specialized stage (Hauptstudium) of a course of study. (2) In all appropriate courses of study, conditions shall be laid down in which a final examination taken during the standard period of study may be disregarded if the candidate does not pass it ("free attempt", Freiversuch). Land legislation may provide that students passing an examination in such a "free attempt" can repeat the examination with a view to achieving higher grades. (3) For the purpose of certifying completion of course units and examination performance, a system of credit points shall be introduced; this system shall also enable students to transfer their credits to other courses of study at the same or another institution of higher education. (4) Performance in an examination may only be assessed by persons having themselves a qualification which is at least the same as, or equivalent to, the qualification established by the said examination.

According to the Section 16: Examination regulations: Academic examinations shall be based on examination regulations requiring the approval of the authority competent under Land law. Examination requirements and procedures shall be such that the entire final examination can be taken within the standard period of study. Examination regulations must enable candidates to benefit from the protection periods stipulated in sections 3 (2) and 6 (1) of the Maternity Protection Act (Mutterschutzgesetz) and from the parental leave periods provided by Land legislation. Examination regulations must take the special needs of disabled students into consideration in order to preserve their equality of opportunity. Approval of examination regulations shall be withheld if the submitted regulations envisage a standard period of study which is inconsistent with section 11 or section 19 of the present Act. In particular, approval may be withheld if the examination regulations fail to comply with other provisions governing the standard period of study. The authority competent under Land law may require that existing examination regulations be modified, particularly if they fail to meet the conditions laid down in the second to sixth sentences above.

According to the Section 17: Examinations taken early Academic examinations may be taken prior to the registration deadline, provided that the candidate can prove that he or she has fulfilled the requirements for admission to the examination.

According to the Section 20: Study at institutions abroad: Course and examination credits earned at institutions abroad shall be recognized if their equivalence has been established. This shall apply without prejudice to the second sentence of section 5a (1) and section 112 of the German Judiciary Act (Deutsches Richtergesetz).

According to the Section 22: Purpose and coordination of research: The purpose of research at institutions of higher education shall be the acquisition of scientific knowledge and the scientific underpinning and development of teaching and study. Research at institutions of higher education may, subject to the specific role of the institution concerned, relate to any academic discipline and to the practical application of scientific findings, including the potential impact of such application. For the purpose of coordinating their research projects and research priorities and of planning and executing joint research projects, the institutions of higher education shall cooperate with one another, with other research establishments and with establishments in the field of superregional research planning and promotion.

According to the Section 24: Publication of research findings, When research findings are published, those staff members who have made their own scientific contribution to the research or played some other major part in it shall be cited as co-authors; wherever possible, their contribution shall be identified.

According to the Section 25: Externally funded research, The members of an institution of higher education engaged in research shall be entitled, as part of their official duties, to carry out research projects which are not financed from the institution's own budget but from funds provided by third parties, without prejudice to their obligation to perform their other official duties. The implementation of the projects referred to in the first sentence above shall be considered part of an institution's academic research.

(2) Any member of an institution of higher education shall be entitled to carry out a research project pursuant to paragraph 1 above at the institution of higher education, provided that the fulfillment of the institution's other functions and the rights and obligations of other persons are not impaired and that adequate consideration is 10 given to commitments that might result from the project; as a rule, the research findings derived from such projects should be published within a reasonable period of time. (3) Notice shall be given of any research project covered by paragraph 1 above. The execution of such a project may not be made contingent on any approval. The use of the institution's staff, equipment and facilities may be prohibited or restricted by the imposition of conditions only if such a measure is dictated by the provisions of paragraph 2 above.

(4) The funds for research projects carried out at an institution of higher education shall be administered by the institution concerned. The funds shall be employed for the purpose specified by the third party from whom they have been received and expended in accordance with the latter's conditions unless there are legal provisions to the contrary. Matters not covered by the said conditions shall be regulated by the provisions of Land legislation. At the request of the member carrying out the project, the institution of higher education shall refrain from administering the funds if this accords with the conditions imposed by the funding party; in such a case, the third sentence of this paragraph shall not apply.

(5) Primarily employed staff to be paid from third-party funds for research projects being carried out at an institution of higher education shall be recruited as staff of the institution on the basis of employment contracts, without prejudice to the provisions of the third sentence of this paragraph. The engagement of such staff shall be conditional upon their having been proposed by the member of the institution who is carrying out the project. If the conditions imposed by the funding party so permit, the member of the institution may, in justified cases, conclude the employment contracts with such staff.

(6) Financial returns earned by the institution of higher education from research projects carried out at the institution, in particular from income earned by the institution in return for the use of staff, equipment and facilities, shall be at the institution's disposal for the performance of its tasks.

According to the Section 26: Development projects: The provisions of this Part shall apply, mutatis mutandis, to development projects within the framework of applied research and to artistic development projects. [35]

4.3. Laws and Regulations of Higher Education in Italy:

The need to maintain the university system up-to-date has led to some important changes in the organization of studies at the beginning of the 1990s. In order to give greater impetus to this process, the Ministry of Universities and Scientific and Technological Research was set up in 1989, and in 1990 the Law for the Reform of University Education (Decree Law No. 341) was approved.

This law reorganized the system taking into consideration the cultural, economic and social changes at both the national and international levels. In December 1991, a Law concerning the right to university studies was passed, aimed at guaranteeing financial support to the students. It should be mentioned that Law No. 910 of 11 December 1969 granted access to university to all upper secondary school graduates. The autonomy of universities is regulated by Decree No. 509 of 3 November 1999, amended by the Decree No. 270 of 22 October 2004. The Decree of 1999 entered into force in 2001 and Law No. 508 of 21 December 1999 (complemented by the Presidential Decree No. 212 of 2005) on higher education institutes in the field of the arts represent the main legislative framework for the implementation of the reform of the higher education system in accordance with the European three-cycle degree pattern outlined in the Bologna process (see also Eurydice, 2007). [36]

5. Challenges of Higher Education between Finland, Garman and Italy:

Finland: In response to reduced government funding universities need new and more diverse revenue streams. Finnish universities are not excluded from the very competitive global market for best students and staff. Maintaining a strong and attractive brand for the Finnish higher education sector is beneficial to the academic community as a whole. Even though funding is being cut universities need to work on attracting graduates into further studies and employment both locally and globally. The rise of e-learning both challenges and sets best practices for traditional university teaching and learning. Collecting and analyzing learning analytics could give much needed insight in developing curriculum and teaching methods. All education modules should have digital aspects in order to reflect the future of working life.

Germany: Since the switch to bachelors-masters degrees prescribed by Europe's standardizing “Bologna process” in 1998, many German universities suffer from overcrowding. At the same time, German universities are underfunded by international standards. Professors juggle scores of students while at top American universities they nurture a handful. In the past, German universities were interchangeable, and most students chose one close to home. But the state budget cuts in the early 1990s have forced them to compete and specialize. The government's “excellence initiative” is increasing research funding for selected universities and goads them to differentiate still more. [37]

Italy: Higher education in Italy is mainly covered by universities and superior graduate schools, with almost no professional or vocational school following the secondary education. This is considered a weak point of the Italian post-secondary education. The real weaknesses of the Italian university systems are low numbers of graduates; high university drop-out rates; strong discrepancy between the allocated time-to-graduation and the actual duration of studies.[38] Forty percent of students that enrolment in an Italian university fails to graduate in their chosen course, a government report shows. Italy is also falling behind in terms of research spending at universities, with public funding around €3 billion lower than the average figure for the OECD’s 34 countries.[39]

6. Summary:

 After analysis of my whole paper I summarized higher education between the three counties specially, Finland offered top class higher education among the European countries. Because Finland provides better education that student accept education with enjoyably. And also they show theoretical, practical and research combine way to better understanding for the pupil. Free of cost education that is the good reason to global branding of Finland higher education. Finland university education it can be role model in EU countries.

Standards of German universities are top, not only are the well-known technical institutes, such as TU Darmstadt, RWTH Aachen, and others, ranked as some of the best in the world, but the study courses offered in a variety of other disciplines such as: medicine, law, social sciences, arts etc., are highly acclaimed internationally. German higher education especially engineering sector is more advanced throughout the EU counties not only EU countries but also whole over the world.

On the other hand, Italian higher education is providing international program with tuition fees. Which give them back position compare with other English speaking country? Italian universities are mostly focusing on theoretical study. Although they face challenge through lacking of practical modules, shortage of education budget, lacking of usability of English language, hesitation to use modern technology in every classroom put Italian higher education institutes very lower position in education ranking among all European countries.

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[5] Thifa, Dani, (2015), http://www.mbctimes.com/english/20-best-education-systems-world

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[7] http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/countries/italy/

[8] PISA, 2012, (PDF) http://www.oecd.org/italy/PISA-2012-results-italy.pdf

[9] ‘GLOBALISATION AND HIGHER EDUCATION: WHAT MIGHT THE FUTURE BRING?’ by Stéphan Vincent-Lancrin and Kiira Kärkkäinen, © OECD, Publication December 2009, Page 1

[10] Prutsch, M. J. (2015). Internationalisation of Higher Education, Director General for Internal Politics, Policy Department B: Structural and Cohesion Policies, European Parliament,( 91-94)

[11] Arimoto, A., Huang, F., & Yokoyama, K. (Eds.). (2005). Globalization and higher education. Research Institute for Higher Education, Hiroshima University.

[12] Wissenschaft weltoffen, (2015-july-20 ),  New record 2014: Number of international students in Germany continues to increase, http://www.make-it-in-germany.com/en/for-qualified-professionals/make-it-in-germany/news/detail/new-record-2014-number-of-international-students-in-germany-continues-to-increase

[13] International Dialogue on Education, Berlin, (2009 April 30), Exploring Difference: Positioning your Institution - Marketing and Branding, http://www.id-e-berlin.de/past-events/exploring-difference-positioning-your-institution-marketing-and-branding

[14] Research in Germany Land of Ideas, (2015 December 08), International collaborations, http://www.research-in-germany.org/en/jobs-and-careers/info-for-postdocs-and-junior-researchers/career-paths/international-collaborations.html

[15] https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2016/world-ranking#!/page/0/length/100

[16] ICEF Monitor, 2014, Number of outbound German students up sharply in recent years, http://monitor.icef.com/2014/10/number-outbound-german-students-sharply-recent-years/

[17] Federal Minister of Education and Research of German, 2005, Internationalization of Higher Education (PDF) https://www.bmbf.de/pub/internationalization_of_higher_education_2005.pdf

[18] Hunter, Fiona, (2015). Internationalisation of Higher Education, Director General for Internal Politics, Policy Department B: Structural and Cohesion Policies, European Parliament,( P. 123-126)

[19] Hopkins, J. D. (1990). The Educational System of Finland. World Education News and Reviews, 10-18.

[20] Lohmar, B., & Eckhardt, T. (2013). The Education System in the Federal Republic of Germany 2011/2012-A description of the responsibilities, structures and developments in education policy for the exchange of information in Europe. Bonn: KMK.

[21] World data on Education,Italy, 6^th edition , 2006/07, http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/archive/Countries/WDE/2006/WESTERN_EUROPE/Italy/Italy.htm.

[22] Bolam, R. (1999) ‘Educational administration, leadership and management: towards a research agenda’, in T. Bush, L. Bell, R. Bolam, R. Glatter and P. Ribbins (eds), Educational Management: Redefining Theory, Policy and Practice, London: Paul Chapman Publishing.

[23] Sapre, P. (2002) ‘Realising the potential of educational management in India’, Educational Management and Administration, 30(1): 101–8.

[24] Bush, T. (2003). Theories of educational leadership and management. Sage.

[25] Newman, J., & Clarke, J. (1994). Going about our business? The managerialization of public services. Managing social policy, 13-31.

[26] Gunter, H. (1997). Rethinking education: The consequences of Jurassic management. Continuum International Publishing Group.

[27] Hopkins, J. D. (1990). The Educational System of Finland. World Education News and Reviews, 10-18.

[28] Veronica Stolte-Heiskanen, 1993, Women in Higher Education Management (Commonwealth Secretariat, UNESCO, http://collections.infocollections.org/ukedu/en/d/Js1421e/6.html

[29] KMK: Hochschulen und Hochschulpolitik vor neuen Herausforderungen, Beschluss der KMK vom 28.2.1997, p. 9-11.

[30] For recruitment requirements, duties and status of staff cp: The education system in the federal republic of Germany 2001, p. 208 et sq. http://www.kmk.org.doku.home1/htm. For trends and figures cp. Wissenschaftsrat, Eckdaten und Kennzahlen zur Lage der Hochschulen, http://www.wissenschaftsrat.de/texte/5125-02.pdf, p. 50-57.

[31] ‘FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT AND GOVERNANCE IN HEIS: GERMANY ’ by Hartwig, Dr. Lydia, © OECD, Publication December 2004, Page 7-9

[32] CIMEA ITALIAN HIGHER EDUCATION An international guide Rome, 2003, page 17-18. http://www.miur.it/guida/Italian_Higher_Education.pdf

[33] http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/archive/Countries/WDE/2006/WESTERN_EUROPE/Italy/Italy.htm

[34] UNIVERSITIES ACT, 558/2009, in Finland, (PDF)http://www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/2009/en20090558.pdf

[35] Hochschulrahmengesetz (HRG), as promulgated on 19 January 1999 (BGBl. I, p. 18) and as amended by Article 1 of the Act of 27 December 2004 (BGBl. I, p. 3835) considering the decision of the Federal Constitutional Court of 26 January 2005 (2 BvF 1/03)

[36] Country basic information on Italy. 2006/07.  World Data on Education: Laws and other basic regulations concerning education, page no. 4. http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/archive/Countries/WDE/2006/WESTERN_EUROPE/Italy/Italy.pdf

[37] Lenzen. Dieter, 2012 September, Current Challenges Facing German Universities, http://deutscheshaus.as.nyu.edu/object/dheventcurrentchallenges090612.html

[38] Gasperoni, G. (2011). Reform of the Italian University Educational System and Evolution of Selected Characteristics of Its Graduates (2000-2009) (No. 3).

[39] The local.de (2014), http://www.thelocal.it/20140319/italy-university-course-drop-out-rate-hits

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